Treating a bacterial skin infection with a whole, leech saliva extract

ABSTRACT

Methods are also provided for isolating and using a whole-saliva leech extract in the treatment of a bacterial skin infection. The methods can include feeding a phagostimulatory agent to a leech; inducing a regurgitation in the leech, the inducing including placing the leech in an environment having a temperature of less than about 0° C.; and, collecting an unrefined, whole saliva in the regurgitation of the cooled leech. The methods can include revitalizing the leech by warming it at a temperature ranging from about 5° C. to about 40° C. Stable, lyophilized, whole-saliva extracts of a leech are also provided, the extract having a stable activity when stored for use at a temperature below about −20° C., the extract maintaining at least 70% of the activity for at least 6 months. The extracts can be used to treat solid tumors, treat liquid tumors, treat diabetes, treat a viral disease, treat a parasitic disease, treat an antibacterial disease, or serve as an anti-oxidant.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a division of application Ser. No. 15/223,352, filed on Jul. 29, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/991,023, filed Jan. 8, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/837,281, filed Aug. 27, 2015, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,265,803, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/670,262, filed Mar. 26, 2015, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,144,587, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/563,829, filed Dec. 8, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,017,732, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/282,893, filed May 20, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,962,034, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/624,860, filed Sep. 21, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,784,896, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/701,735, filed on Sep. 17, 2012, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Field of the Invention

The teachings provided herein are generally directed to methods of isolating and using a whole-saliva leech extract in the treatment of a subject.

Description of the Related Art

The history of humans using leeches goes back several thousands of years, and practically all human civilizations described the use of leeches to treat different diseases. Unfortunately, due at least to a lack of understanding of the chemistries and mechanisms associated with such uses, the current state-of-the-art has not been able to successfully commercialize the use of leech saliva extracts in treating disease.

There have been attempts at sacrificing leeches to extract active compounds from the whole body of leeches, from the heads of leeches, or from their salivary glands. Much research has been directed to identifying proteins from leech saliva extracts. None of these efforts, however, have been able to reproduce the effect of using a whole, live leech, with the exception of, perhaps, the isolation and use of hirudin as an anticoagulant.

There have been attempts at not sacrificing leeches but, rather, extracting a much diluted saliva solution from a live leech. Unfortunately, these efforts have been faced with two major problems: (i) the saliva removal requires a manual squeezing of the leech and, as such, is not easily scalable; and (ii) the saliva remains dilute, which can only be used fresh, and any lyophilization attempts will reduce or completely abolish the therapeutic activity of the leech saliva extract. As such, a dose-dependent treatment, or a treatment at elevated concentrations, is not available for testing.

One of skill will appreciate (i) a method of isolating an active, refined leech saliva extract (LSE) that can be successfully stored for months, or even years; (ii) a method of re-using leeches to produce the LSE; (iii) a method of commercializing the isolation and re-use of the leeches to a scalable amount that is practical for commercialization; (iv) a method of treating a solid tumor with the LSE; (v) a method of treating a liquid tumor with the LSE; (vi) a method of treating diabetes with the LSE; (vii) a method of treating a virus with the LSE; (viii) a method of treating a parasitic disease with the LSE; (ix) a method of using the LSE as an antioxidant; and (x) a method of using the LSE as an antibacterial.

SUMMARY

The teachings provided herein are generally directed to methods of isolating and using a whole-saliva leech extract in the treatment of a subject. Pharmaceutical formulations comprising the leech extracts and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier are provided.

The teachings include a method of removing a whole saliva from a leech. In these embodiments, the methods can include feeding a phagostimulatory agent to a leech; inducing a regurgitation in the leech, the inducing including placing the leech in an environment having a temperature of less than about 0° C.; and, collecting an unrefined, whole saliva in the regurgitation of the cooled leech.

The teachings include a method of creating a lyophilized, whole saliva extract of a leech having an improved stability. In these embodiments, the method can include feeding a phagostimulatory agent to a leech; inducing regurgitation in the leech, the inducing including placing the leech in an environment having a temperature ranging from about −5° C. to about 15° C.; collecting an unrefined, whole saliva in the regurgitation of the cooled leech; removing solid components from the unrefined, whole saliva to create a refined, whole saliva; and, lyophilizing separate volumes of the refined, whole saliva extract, the volumes not exceeding about 2 ml each.

In some embodiments, the collecting includes squeezing the leech to increase the amount of unrefined, whole saliva collected. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise revitalizing the leech by warming the leech in a water bath having a temperature ranging from about 5° C. to about 40° C. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise creating a refined, whole-saliva extract; the creating including removing solid components from the unrefined, whole saliva. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise lyophilizing separate volumes of the refined, whole saliva extract, the volumes not exceeding about 2 ml each. And, in some embodiments, the leech is Hirudinaria manillensis.

The teachings include a stable, lyophilized, whole-saliva extract of a leech. In these embodiments, the extract comprises a refined, whole-saliva extract of a leech lyophilized in volumes not exceeding about 2 ml each, the extract refined by removing solid components from an unrefined, whole saliva to create the refined, whole saliva; wherein, the extract has a stable activity when stored for use at a temperature below about −20° C., the extract maintaining at least 70% of the activity for at least 6 months. And, the leech can be Hirudinaria manillensis.

Methods of treating a subject by administering an effect amount of the leech extracts are provided. In some embodiments, the method includes treating a solid tumor, treating a liquid tumor, treating diabetes, treating a viral disease, treating a parasitic disease, treating a bacterial disease, or administering an anti-oxidant therapy. It should be appreciated that each of the treatments also relate to other conditions that may be desirable to treat in the subject.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 illustrates a method of feeding a phagostimulatory agent to a leech using a membrane, according to some embodiments.

FIGS. 2A-2C illustrate the collection of unrefined, whole saliva extract, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 3 illustrates a UV spectra of the refined, leech saliva extract, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 4 illustrates a standard curve for a colorimetric Bradford protein assay, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 5 shows the LSE protein molecular weight distribution results of a Malaysian leech, Hirudinaria manillensis, using the Laemmli SDS-PAGE 15% gel electrophoresis, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 6 shows the LSE protein molecular weight distribution results of a Malaysian leech, Hirudinaria manillensis, using the Laemmli SDS-PAGE 15% gel electrophoresis, wherein the LSE was concentrated using acetone precipitation, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 7 shows the LSE protein molecular weight distribution results of a Malaysian leech, Hirudinaria manillensis, using the Laemmli SDS-PAGE 15% gel electrophoresis, wherein the LSE was precipitated from solution using a trichloroacetic acid (TCA) precipitation, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 8 shows the LSE protein molecular weight distribution results of a Malaysian leech, Hirudinaria manillensis, using the Non-Urea SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis of Okajima, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 9 shows the LSE protein molecular weight distribution results of a Malaysian leech, Hirudinaria manillensis, using the Tricine SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis method, according to some embodiments.

FIGS. 10A and 10B show the results of RP-HPLC in the analysis of LSE, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 11 shows isolation of LSE proteins using RP-HPLC, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 12 shows the molecular weights of the two isolated proteins using Tricine SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 13 illustrates IC50 of LSE with respect to antithrombin activity, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 14 shows the relationship between thrombin time and the concentration of LSE protein, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 15 shows effects of lyophilization conditions and storage conditions on the activity and stability of the LSE, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 16 shows the effect of lyophilization time on antithrombin activity of LSE, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 17 shows the effect of light, and container on antithrombin activity of LSE samples (lyophilized and non-lyophilized) stored at room temperature for up to 7 days, according to some embodiments.

FIG. 18 shows the effect of storage temperature, light, and container on antithrombin activity of LSE samples (lyophilized and non-lyophilized) for up to 180 days at 4° C., according to some embodiments.

FIG. 19 shows the effect of container and lyophilization on antithrombin activity of LSE samples for up to 180 days at −20° C., according to some embodiments.

FIG. 20 shows that the LSE showed remarkable anti-proliferation activity against human small cell lung cancer (SW1271 cell line), according to some embodiments.

FIGS. 21 and 22 show the cytotoxic effect of mixtures of LSE with irinotecan or carboplatin, according to some embodiments.

FIGS. 23 and 24 show the effect of different doses of LSE and insulin on fasting blood glucose (mmol/L) in normal and diabetic rats at various time intervals (h), according to some embodiments.

FIG. 25 shows that the LSE has a prophylactic effect on the onset of diabetes, according to some embodiments.

FIGS. 26 and 27 compare the free radical scavenging activity of LSE to L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C), according to some embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The teachings provided herein are generally directed to methods of isolating and using a whole-saliva leech extract in the treatment of a subject. Pharmaceutical formulations comprising the leech extracts and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier are provided.

It should be appreciated that the term “extract” can be used to refer to a powder form of the compounds of interest, a liquid form of the compounds of interest, or any one or any combination of the compounds of interest in powder or liquid form. One of skill will appreciate that the term “extract” can be used to refer to the compounds of interest before, during, or after their removal from the leech. In some embodiments, the compounds of interest can be synthesized chemically using standard methods known to one of skill, such that they can be synthesized and used alone, or in any combination, by those of skill without use of the extraction methods taught herein. The compositions provided herein can be referred to as extracts, compositions, compounds, agents, active agents, bioactive agents, supplements, drugs, and the like. In some embodiments, the terms “LSE,” “extract,” “LSE composition,” “composition,” “compound,” “agent,” “active”, “active agent”, “bioactive agent,” “supplement,” and “drug” can be used interchangeably and, it should be appreciated that, a “formulation” can comprise any one or any combination of these. Likewise, in some embodiments, the composition can also be in a liquid or dry form, where a dry form can be a powder form in some embodiments, and a liquid form can include an aqueous or non-aqueous component. Moreover, the terms “activity” or “bioactivity” can refer to the function of the compound in vitro, in an assay for example, or in vivo when administered to a subject.

It should be appreciated that the leech extracts can be isolated or purified. In some embodiments, the terms “isolated” and “purified” can be used interchangeably. In some embodiments, the term “isolated” can be used to refer to the extract being removed from the natural chemical environment of the leech, such that the extract is not in the form in which it exists in nature. It should be appreciated that the term “purified” can be used to refer to an extract from a Hirudinaria manillensis leech, in some embodiments, such that the compounds of interest are isolated from the remainder of the leech in a form that can be administered to a subject, such as a soluble form, or a form that can go into aqueous solution. As such, one of skill will appreciate that the compounds of interest can sometimes be accompanied by other components that are carried along with the extract. For example, such other components can include any one or any combination of proteins found to be active in the leech. In some embodiments, the term “purified” can be used to refer to an extract consisting of, or consisting essentially of, any one or any combination of the compounds of interest. In some embodiments, the extract includes a phagostimulatory solution or a component from the phagostimulatory solution. In some embodiments, an extract “consists essentially of” any one or any combination of the compounds of interest, where the presence of any other component from the leech or extraction procedure has a negligible effect on the activity of the compounds of interest. The term “negligible effect” can be used to mean that the activity does not increase or decrease more than about 10% when compared to any one or any combination of the compounds of interest, respectively, without the other components. In some embodiments, the term “negligible effect” can be used to refer to a change of less that 10%, less than 9%, less than 8%, less than 7%, less than 6%, less than 5%, less than 4%, and less than 3%. In some embodiments, the term “negligible effect” can be used to refer to a change ranging from about 3% to about 10%, in increments of 1%. For example, the activity of the compounds of interest can be enhanced by an amount ranging from about 10% to about 300%, from about 20% to about 200%, from about 25% to about 250%, from about 30% to about 300%, from about 35% to about 275%, from about 40% to about 225%, from about 15% to about 100%, or any range therein in increments of 1%.

Methods of removing a whole saliva from a leech are provided. In these embodiments, the methods can include feeding a phagostimulatory agent to a leech; inducing a regurgitation in the leech, the inducing including placing the leech in an environment having a temperature of less than about 0° C.; and, collecting an unrefined, whole saliva in the regurgitation of the cooled leech.

One of skill will appreciate that any leech having a therapeutic saliva can be used in the teachings provided herein. In some embodiments, the leech can belong to the family of hirudinidae, to the sub-family hirudinariiae, or it can belong to a genus selected from the group consisting of hirudo; hirudinaria; aliolimantis; limantis; asiaticobdella; goddardobdella; limnobdella; macrobdella; oxyptychus; philobdella. In some embodiments, the leech can be selected from a species selected from the group consisting of hirudo medicinalis; hirudo troctina, hirudo nipponia; hirudo orientalis; hirudo verbana; hirudinaria manillensis; hirudinaria javanica; aliolimantis africana; aliolimantis michaelseni; aliolimantis oligodonta; aliolimantis buntonesis; limantis nilotica; limantis cf. nilotica; limantis paluda; asiaticobdella fenestrata; goddardobdella elegans; limnobdella mexicana; macrobdella decora; macrobdella diploteria; macrobdella diletra; oxyptychus brasiliensis; oxyptychus striatus; philobdella floridana; philobdella gracilis.

In some embodiments, the leech can belong to the family of haemadipsidae, or it can belong to a genus selected from the group consisting of chtonobdella; haemadipsa; idiobdella; malagdbdella; nesophilaemon. In these embodiments, the leech can be selected from a species selected from the group consisting of chtonobdella bilineata; chtonobdella whitmani; haemadipsa interrupta; haemadipsa sylvestris; haemadipsa sumatrana; idiobdella seychellensis; malagdbdella fallax; nesophilaemon skottsbergi.

In some embodiments, the leech can belong to the family of xerobdellidae, or it can belong to a genus selected from the group consisting of diestecostoma; mesobdella; xerobdella. In these embodiments, the leech can be selected from a species selected from the group consisting of diestecostoma magna; diestecostoma mexicana; diestecostoma trujillensis; mesobdella gemmata; xerobdella lecomtei.

In some embodiments, the leech can belong to the family of haemopidae, or it can belong to a genus selected from the group consisting of haemopis; whitmania. In these embodiments, the leech can be selected from a species selected from the group consisting of haemopis grandis; haemopis kingi; haemopis sanguisuga; haemopis terrestris; whitmania laevis.

In some embodiments, the leech can belong to the family of semiscolecidae, or it can belong to a genus selected from the group consisting of patagoniobdella; semiscolex. In these embodiments, the leech can be selected from a species selected from the group consisting of patagoniobdella fraternal; patagoniobdella variabilis; semiscolex intermedius; semiscolex lamothei; semiscolex similis.

In some embodiments, the leech can belong to the family of americobdellidae, or it can belong to a genus selected from the group consisting of americobdella. In these embodiments, the leech can be selected from a species selected from the group consisting of americobdella valdiviana.

In some embodiments, the leech can belong to the family of cylicobdellidae, or it can belong to a genus selected from the group consisting of cylicobdella. In these embodiments, the leech can be selected from a species selected from the group consisting of cylicobdella coccinea.

In some embodiments, the leech can belong to the family of erpobdellidae. In these embodiments, the leech can be selected from a species selected from the group consisting of erpobdella mentezuma.

The leeches can be classified according to Table 1, in some embodiments.

TABLE 1 Family Sub family Genus Species Hirudinidae Hirudinariinae Hirudo Hirudo medicinalis Hirudo nipponia Hirudo orientalis Hirudo troctina Hirudo verbana Aliolimantis Aliolimantis Africana Aliomantis michaelseni Aliomantis oligodonta Aliomantis buntonesis Asiaticobdella Asiaticobdella fenestrate Goddardobdella Goddardobdella elegans Hirudinaria Hirudinaria javanica Hirudinaria manillensis Limantis Limantis nilotica Limantis cf. nilotica Limantis paluda Limnobdella Limnobdella mexicana Macrobdella Macrobdella decora Macrobdella diploteria Macrobdella diletra Oxyptychus Oxyptychus brasiliensis Oxyptychus striatus Philobdella Philobdella floridana Philobdella gracilis Haemadipsidae Not applicable Chtonobdella Chtonobdella bilineata Chtonobdella whitmani Haemadipsa Haemadipsa interrupta Haemadipsa sylvestris Haemadipsa sumatrana Idiobdella Idiobdella seychellensis Malagadbdella Malagadbdella fallax Nesophilaemon Nesophilaemon skottsbergi Xerobdellidae Not applicable Diestecostoma Diestecostoma magna Diestecostoma Mexicana Diestecostoma trujillensis Mesobdella Mesobdella gemmata Xerobdella Xerobdella lecomtei Haemopidae Not applicable Haemopis haemopis grandis Haemopis kingi Haemopis sanguisuga Haemopis terrestris Whitmania Whitmania laevis Semiscolecidae Not applicable Patagoniobdella Patagoniobdella fraternal Patagoniobdella variabilis Semiscolex Semiscolex intermedius Semiscolex lamothei Semiscolex similis Americobdellidae Not applicable Americobdella Americobdella valdiviana Cylicobdellidae Not applicable Cylicobdella Cylicobdella coccinea Erpobdellidae Not applicable Erpobdella Erpobdella montezuma

Any phagostimulatory agent known to one of skill can be used. In some embodiments, the phagostimulatory agent can include a protein, a polypeptide, an oligopeptide, or an amino acid. In some embodiments, the amino acid is an L-amino acid selected from the group consisting of arginine, alanine, leucine, aspartic acid, serine, threonine, isoleucine, histidine, lysine, tryptophan, glycine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, valine, glutamic acid, asparagine, glutamine, cysteine, methionine, and proline. In some embodiments, the phagostimulatory agent is arginine. In some embodiments, the phagostimulatory agent is glycine. In some embodiments, the phagostimulatory agent is proline. In some embodiments, the phagostimulatory agent is a sugar. In some embodiments, the phagostimulatory agent is a sugar selected from the group consisting of fructose, glucose, sucrose, maltose, raffinose, trehalose, robose, and galactose. In some embodiments, the phagostimulatory agent is corn oil. In some embodiments, the phagostimulatory agent comprises any one or any combination of amino acids and/or sugars taught herein. Any suitable solvent for carrying the phagostimulatory can be used, polar or non-polar, as long as the solvent does not substantially affect the activity or stability of the leech saliva extract.

The temperature of the leech that induces the regurgitation can range from about −5° C. to about 15° C., from about −4° C. to about 14° C., from about −3° C. to about 13° C., from about −2° C. to about 12° C., from about −1° C. to about 11° C., from about 0° C. to about 10° C., from about −2° C. to about 2° C., from about −3° C. to about 3° C., from about −4° C. to about 4° C., from about −5° C. to about 5° C., or any temperature or range of temperatures therein in increments of 1° C. The temperature can be established using any method known to one of skill. In some embodiments, the temperature is established to 0° C. or about 0° C. using an ice water bath. In some embodiments, a salt water bath can be used to lower the temperature below 0° C., and in some embodiments, other liquids can be used to obtain other temperatures. Any method of cooling know to one of skill can be used to induce the leeches to vomit. The rate of freezing can be 0.1 to 2° C. per minute and, in some embodiments, 1° C. to 1.5° C. per minute. The time at the cool temperature can vary and can be, for example, from about 5 minutes to about 45 minutes, from about 15 minutes to about 40 minutes, from about 15 minutes to about 20 minutes, from about 10 minutes to about 30 minutes, from about 5 minutes to about 25 minutes, from about 3 minutes to about 35 minutes, from about 2 minutes to about 12 minutes, or any time or range times therein in increments of 1 minute.

Methods of creating a lyophilized, whole saliva extract of a leech having an improved stability are provided by the teachings herein. In these embodiments, the method can include feeding a phagostimulatory agent to a leech; inducing regurgitation in the leech, the inducing including placing the leech in an environment having a temperature ranging from about −5° C. to about 15° C.; collecting an unrefined, whole saliva in the regurgitation of the cooled leech; removing solid components from the unrefined, whole saliva to create a refined, whole saliva; and, lyophilizing separate volumes of the refined, whole saliva extract, the volumes not exceeding about 2 ml each.

In some embodiments, the collecting includes squeezing the leech to increase the amount of unrefined, whole saliva collected. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise revitalizing the leech by warming the leech in a water bath having a temperature ranging from about 5° C. to about 40° C. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise creating a refined, whole-saliva extract; the creating including removing solid components from the unrefined, whole saliva. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise lyophilizing separate volumes of the refined, whole saliva extract, the volumes not exceeding about 2 ml each. And, in some embodiments, the leech is Hirudinaria manillensis.

Stable, lyophilized, whole-saliva extracts of a leech are provided by the teachings herein. In these embodiments, the extract comprises a refined, whole-saliva extract of a leech lyophilized in volumes not exceeding about 2 ml each, the extract refined by removing solid components from an unrefined, whole saliva to create the refined, whole saliva; wherein, the extract has a stable activity when stored for use at a temperature below about −20° C., the extract maintaining at least 70% of the activity for at least 6 months. And, the leech can be Hirudinaria manillensis.

Storage temperature has been shown in some embodiments herein to have a large effect on the stability of the extracts. In some embodiments, for example, the refined, whole saliva can be stored at a temperature ranging from 0° C. to −80° C., from −20° C. to −270° C., from −20° C. to −196° C., from −20° C. to −80° C., from −80° C. to −196° C., or any temperature, or any range therein in increments of 1° C.

One of skill will appreciate that the extracts can vary in stability, but that the teachings provided herein show extracts with increased stabilities when compared to the current state-of-the-art. One of skill will appreciate that the compositions or formulations should remain stable, or at least substantially stable, until used or activated, and this can relate to a shelf life, or a time between creation and administration of the composition, or some combination thereof. In some embodiments, the composition is stable, or substantially stable, when usable as intended within a reasonable amount of time, a time that is considered reasonable by one of skill for the applications taught herein. In some embodiments, the composition should be usable within a reasonable time from the making to the administration of the composition and, in some embodiments, the composition should have a reasonable commercial shelf life, a shelf life that is considered reasonable to one of skill. A reasonable shelf life can be at least 6 months, at least 1 year, at least 18 months, at least 2 years, at least 3 years, or any time in-between in increments of about 1 month, in some embodiments.

In some embodiments, a composition or formulation can be considered as “stable” if it loses less than 10%, less than 7%, less than 6%, less than 5%, less than 3%, less than 2%, or less than 1% of its original activity. In some embodiments, a composition or formulation can be considered as “substantially stable” if it loses greater than about 10% of its original activity, as long as the composition can perform it's intended use to a reasonable degree of efficacy. In some embodiments, the composition can be considered as substantially stable if it loses activity at an amount greater than about 12%, about 15%, about 25%, about 35%, about 45%, about 50%, about 60%, or even about 70%. The activity loss can be measured by comparing activity at the time of packaging to the activity at the time of administration, and this can include a reasonable shelf life. In some embodiments, the composition is stable or substantially stable, if it remains useful for a period ranging from 3 months to 3 years, 6 months to 2 years, 1 year, or any time period therein in increments of about 1 month.

Methods of Treatment

Methods of treating a subject by administering an effect amount of the leech extracts are provided by the teachings herein. The extracts taught herein can be used for a variety of treatments, preventative, ameliorative, or otherwise, as well as for use as a dietary supplement. The uses can include medicinal purposes, as a health supplement, a nutritional composition, a prophylactic, or a treatment of an existing condition. In some embodiments, any tissue that can make contact with one or more active components of an extract taught herein can be treated. In some embodiments, a tissue can have a desirable secondary effect from one or more of the active components of an extract taught herein making contact elsewhere in the subject, such that one or more of the active components can contact a first tissue, whereas a second tissue realizes a beneficial effect. For example, the first tissue can be a stomach lining, and the second tissue can realize the desirable effect of a release of a neurotransmitter or a neuroimpulse. The tissue can be, for example, connective, muscle, nervous, and/or epithelial tissue. In some embodiments, the tissue is a dermal tissue. In some embodiments, the tissue is a mucosal tissue. And, in some embodiments, the tissue is gastrointestinal tissue. In some embodiments, the method includes treating a solid tumor, treating a liquid tumor, treating diabetes, treating a viral disease, treating a parasitic disease, administering an anti-oxidant therapy, or administering an antibacterial therapy.

As such, the subject can have a target tissue that is the focus of the treatment in which the extracts are applied directly or systemically. In some embodiments, the term “target site” can be used to refer to a select location on or in a subject that could benefit from an administration of a compound taught herein, either parenterally or non-parenterally, whether injected or administered topically or orally, for example. In some embodiments, a target can include any site of action in which the agent's activity can serve a benefit to the subject. The target site can be a healthy or damaged tissue of a subject. As such, the teachings include a method of administering one or more compounds taught herein to a healthy or damaged tissue, dermal, mucosal, gastrointestinal or otherwise.

The terms “treat,” “treating,” and “treatment” can be used interchangeably in some embodiments and refer to the administering or application of the compositions and formulations taught herein, including such administration as a health or nutritional supplement, and all administrations directed to the prevention, inhibition, amelioration of the symptoms, or even a cure of a condition taught herein. The terms “disease,” “condition,” “disorder,” and “ailment” can be used interchangeably in some embodiments.

The term “subject” and “patient” can be used interchangeably in some embodiments and refer to an animal such as a mammal including, but not limited to, non-primates such as, for example, a cow, pig, horse, cat, dog, rat and mouse; and primates such as, for example, a monkey or a human. As such, the terms “subject” and “patient” can also be applied to non-human biologic applications including, but not limited to, veterinary, companion animals, commercial livestock, and the like.

Treatment of Cancer

The LSE taught herein can be used in the treatment of cancer. In some embodiments, the methods include treating a solid tumor and, in some embodiments, the methods include treating a liquid tumor. One of skill will appreciate that the cancers that can be treated using the methods taught herein can include any hyperproliferative tissue. In some embodiments, for example, any cancer listed in Table 2 can be treated using the methods taught herein.

TABLE 2 Cell line Cancer type Cancer Sub-type CCRF-CEM Leukemia Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) HL-60 (TB) Leukemia Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML) K-562 Leukemia Chronic Myelogenous leukemia (CML) MOLT-4 Leukemia Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) RPMI-8226 Multiple Myeloma Plasmacytoma, myeloma SR Leukemia Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) A549/ATCC Non-small cell lung Adinocarcinoma EKVX Non-small cell lung Adinocarcinoma HOP-62 Non-small cell lung Adinocarcinoma HOP-92 Non-small cell lung Adinocarcinoma NCI-H226 Non-small cell lung Squamous Carcinoma NCI-H23 Non-small cell lung Adinocarcinoma NCI-H322M Non-small cell lung Bronchioloalveolar Carcinoma NCI-H460 Non-small cell lung Adinocarcinoma NCI-H522 Non-small cell lung Adinocarcinoma COLO 205 Colon Adinocarcinoma HCC-2998 Colon Adinocarcinoma HCT-116 Colon Carcinoma HCT-15 Colon Adinocarcinoma HT-29 Colon Adinocarcinoma KM12 Colon Colorectal SW-620 Colon Adinocarcinoma SN-268 CNS Glioblastoma SF-295 CNS Glioblastoma SF-539 CNS Gliosarcoma SNB-19 CNS Glioblastoma SNB-75 CNS Glioblastoma LOX IMVI Skin Cancer Melanoma MALME-3M Skin Cancer Melanoma M14 Skin Cancer Melanoma, amelanotic SK-MEL-2 Skin Cancer Melanoma, malignant SK-MEL-28 Skin Cancer Melanoma, malignant SK-MEL-5 Skin Cancer Melanoma, malignant UACC-257 Skin Cancer Melanoma UACC-62 Skin Cancer Melanoma IGROVI Ovarian Adinocarcinoma OVCAR-3 Ovarian Adinocarcinoma OVCAR-4 Ovarian Carcinoma OVCAR-5 Ovarian Carcinoma OVCAR-8 Ovarian Carcinoma SK-OV-3 Ovarian Adinocarcinoma 786-0 Renal Carcinoma A498 Renal Carcinoma ACHN Renal Adinocarcinoma CAKI-1 Renal Carcinoma RXF-393 Renal Carcinoma SN12C Renal Carcinoma TK-10 Renal Carcinoma UO-31 Renal Carcinoma PC-3 Prostate Adinocarcinoma DU-145 Prostate Carcinoma MCF7 Breast Adinocarcinoma NCI/ADR-RES Breast Adinocarcinoma MDA-MB-231/ATCC Breast Adinocarcinoma HS 578T Breast Carcinosarcoma MDA-MB-435 Breast Carcinoma, ductal MDA-MB-468 Breast Adinocarcinoma BT-549 Breast Carcinoma T-47D Breast Carcinoma, ductal

Treatment of Diabetes

The LSE taught herein can be used in the treatment of diabetes. Examples of diabetes include Type 1-, Type 2-, and gestational diabetes. As such, one of skill will appreciate that the LSE taught herein can be used in treating and preventing metabolic imbalances, diabetes mellitus, a pre-diabetic state, metabolic syndrome, and other related disorders, such as Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in adults (referred to as Type 1.5 diabetes). As such, secondary medical conditions related to diabetes can also be treated using the LSE taught herein, indirectly or directly, including heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, eye complications (retinopathy, cataracts), kidney disease (nephropathy), nervous system disease (neuropathy), peripheral vascular disease, dental disease, gastroparesis, sexual dysfunction, and complications during pregnancy.

The term “diabetic” in a rat can refer to a random blood glucose>225 mg/dl or fasting blood glucose level of >110 mg/dL. The term “diabetic” in a human can refer to a random plasma or blood glucose concentration of ≥200 mg/dL (≥11.1 mmol/L) or a fasting plasma glucose≥126 mg/dL (≥7.0 mmol/L) or a 2 hour post-load glucose≥200 mg/dL (≥11.1 mmol/L) during an oral glucose tolerance test. The term “non-diabetic” in a rat generally means a fasting plasma glucose level of ≤80 mg/dL or a random plasma glucose level<200 mg/dL. The term “non-diabetic” in a human can refer to a fasting plasma glucose level of <100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/dL) or a 2 hour post-load glucose<140 mg/dL (<7.8 mmol/dL) during an oral glucose tolerance test. The term “pre-diabetic” in a rat can refer to a fasting plasma glucose level of about 80 to about 110 mg/dL. The term “pre-diabetic” in a human can refer to a fasting plasma glucose level of 100-125 mg/dL (5.6-6.9 mmol/L) or a 2 hour post-load glucose 140-199 mg/L (7.8-11.1 mmol/L) during an oral glucose tolerance test. The terms “random” and “nonfasting” can be used in reference to any time of day or night without regard to time since the last meal, and the term “fasting” generally means no caloric intake for at least 12 hours. The term “metabolic imbalance” can refer any condition associated with an elevated plasma glucose. A metabolic imbalance, for example, comprises diabetes mellitus, gestational diabetes, genetic defects of .beta.-cell function, genetic defects in insulin action, diseases of the exocrine pancreas, endocrinopathies, drug or chemical-induced, infections, other genetic syndromes associated with diabetes, a pre-diabetic state, and metabolic syndrome. The term “metabolic syndrome” can refer to a group of metabolic risk factors in one person including, but not limited to, abdominal obesity, atherogenic dyslipidemia, hypertension, insulin resistance or glucose intolerance, prothrombotic state (high fibrinogen or plasminogen activator inhibitor-1), and proinflammatory state (elevated C-reactive protein). In some embodiments, metabolic syndrome be the presence of three or more of the following components: elevated waist circumference (males: ≥40 inches, females≥35 inches), fasting triglycerides≥150 mg/dL, reduced HDL (males: <40 mg/dL, females<50 mg/dL), blood pressure≥130/85 mm Hg, and fasting glucose≥100 mg/dL.

The above definitions for diabetes follow standards of the American Diabetes Association (ADA), the American Heart Association (AHA) and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Other definitions can be used and may vary by region or country, and may depend upon the group or institution (e.g. ADA, World Health Organization (WHO), National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK/NIH), Center for Disease Control (CDC), etc.) providing other guidelines. Physicians may also use clinical experience, a patient's past medical history, and the like when deciding on a diagnosis and treatment. As such, one of skill will appreciate that the particular ranges and measures are merely relative rather than critical to making a diagnosis or planning a treatment. In some embodiments, for example, any of the above measures can vary by about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 5%, about 7%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, 40%, 50%, or any range or amount therein in increments of 0.1%.

Treatment of a Viral Disease

The LSE taught herein can be used in the treatment of several different types of viral diseases. In some embodiments, the virus can be a species of Adenoviridae, Herpesviridae, Papillomaviridae, Polyomaviridae, Poxviridae, Hepadnaviridae, Parvoviridae, Astroviridae, Caliciviridae, Picornaviridae, Coronaviridae, Flaviviridae, Togaviridae, Retroviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Arenaviridae, Bunyaviridaem, Filoviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Rhabdoviridae, or Reoviridae.

In some embodiments, the species of virus treated can be selected from the group consisting of Adenovirus, Herpes simplex, type 1, Herpes simplex, type 2, Varicella-zoster virus, Epstein-barr virus, Human cytomegalovirus, Human herpesvirus, type 8, Human papillomavirus, BK virus, JC virus, Smallpox, Hepatitis B virus, Human bocavirus, Parvovirus B19, Human astrovirus, Norwalk virus, coxsackievirus, hepatitis A virus, poliovirus, rhinovirus, Severe acute respiratory syndrome virus, Hepatitis C virus, yellow fever virus, dengue virus, West Nile virus, Rubella virus, Hepatitis E virus, and Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

In some embodiments, the viral condition can be a regionally identified condition selected from the viral conditions in Table 3:

TABLE 3 United Australia Hong Kong Malaysia Kingdom United States Acquired Acquired Immunodeficiency immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) syndrome Arbovirus Arbovirus Arbovirus infections: infections: Barmah infections: California serogroup virus, Forest, Dengue West Nile Eastern equine encephalitis fever, Japanese virus virus, Powassan virus, St. encephalitis, Louis encephalitis virus, Kunjin virus, West Nile virus, Western Murray Valley equine encephalitis virus encephalitis virus, Ross River virus Chickenpox Chickenpox (i.e., varicella) - morbidity and deaths only Chikungunya fever Dengue fever Dengue fever Dengue fever Enterovirus 71 infection Hantavirus Hantavirus infection Hepatitis Hepatitis Hepatitis Hepatitis A Hepatitis A Hepatitis A Hepatitis B Hepatitis B Hepatitis B Hepatitis C Hepatitis C Hepatitis C Hepatitis D Hepatitis D Hepatitis E Hepatitis E Human Human HIV infection immunodeficiency immunodeficiency virus (HIV) virus (HIV) infection infection Influenza Influenza A Influenza-associated (H2), pediatric mortality and Influenza A novel influenza A infection (H5), Influenza A (H7) or Influenza A (H9) Japanese encephalitis Lyssavirus Measles Measles Measles Measles Measles Mumps Mumps Mumps Mumps Poliomyelitis Acute Poliomyelitis Poliomyelitis Poliomyelitis, paralytic and poliomyelitis non-paralytic Rabies Rabies Rabies Rabies Rubella Rubella and Rubella Rubella congenital rubella syndrome Severe Acute Severe Acute Severe Acute Respiratory Respiratory Respiratory Syndrome Syndrome Syndrome Smallpox Smallpox Smallpox Smallpox Yellow fever Yellow fever Yellow fever Yellow fever Yellow fever Viral Viral haemorrhagic Viral Viral hemorrhagic fever, hemorrhagic fever, including hemorrhagic including Arenavirus (new fever Lassa fever, fever world), Crimean-Congo Marburg virus, and hemorrhagic fever, Dengue Ebola virus hemorraghic fever, Ebola virus, Lassa virus, Marburg virus

In some embodiments, the compositions taught herein can be administered with a second agent, such as abacavir, aciclovir, acyclovir, adefovir, amantadine, amprenavir, ampligen, arbidol, atazanavir, atripla, aoceprevir, cidofovir, combivir, darunavir, delavirdine, didanosine, docosanol, edoxudine, efavirenz, emtricitabine, enfuvirtide, entecavir, entry inhibitors, famciclovir, fomivirsen, fosamprenavir, foscarnet, fosfonet, fusion inhibitor, ganciclovir, ibacitabine, imunovir, idoxuridine, imiquimod, indinavir, inosine, integrase inhibitor, interferon type III, interferon type II, interferon type I, interferon, lamivudine, lopinavir, loviride, maraviroc, moroxydine, methisazone, nelfinavir, nevirapine, nexavir, oseltamivir, peginterferon alfa-2a, penciclovir, peramivir, pleconaril, podophyllotoxin, protease inhibitor. Raltegravir, reverse transcriptase inhibitor, ribavirin, rimantadine, ritonavir, pyramidine, saquinavir, stavudine, synergistic enhancer (antiretroviral), tea tree oil, telaprevir, tenofovir, tenofovir disoproxil, tipranavir, trifluridine, trizivir, tromantadine, truvada, valaciclovir, valganciclovir, vicriviroc, vidarabine, viramidine, zalcitabine, zanamivir, and zidovudine.

Treating a Parasitic Disease

The LSE taught herein can be used in the treatment of several different types of parasitic diseases. In some embodiments, the parasitic disease treated can be classed as a condition caused by protozoa (causing protozoan infection), helminths (helminthiasis), and ectoparasites.

In some embodiments, the parasitic disease can be selected from the group consisting of Acanthamoeba keratitism, Amoebiasis, Ascariasis, Babesiosis, Balantidiasis, Baylisascariasis, Chagas disease, Clonorchiasis, Cochliomyia, Cryptosporidiosis, Diphyllobothriasis, Dracunculiasis (caused by the Guinea worm), Echinococcosis, Elephantiasis, Enterobiasis, Fascioliasis, Fasciolopsiasis, Filariasis, Giardiasis, Gnathostomiasis, Hymenolepiasis, Isosporiasis, Katayama fever, Leishmaniasis, Lyme disease, Malaria, Metagonimiasis, Myiasis, Onchocerciasis, Pediculosis, Scabies, Schistosomiasis, Sleeping sickness, Strongyloidiasis, Taeniasis (cause of Cysticercosis), Toxocariasis, Toxoplasmosis, Trichinosis, and Trichuriasis.

In some embodiments, the compositions taught herein can be administered with a second agent, such as thiabendazole, pyrantel pamoate, mebendazole, praziquantel, niclosamide, bithionol, oxamniquine, metrifonate, Ivermectin, albendazole, benznidazole, nifurtimox, and nitroimidazole.

Treatment of a Bacterial Disease

The LSE taught herein can be used in the treatment of several different types of bacterial diseases. In some embodiments, the bacterial disease can include, for example, tuberculosis from Mycobacterium tuberculosis; pneumonia from Streptococcus and Pseudomonas; a foodborne illness from Shigella, Campylobacter, or Salmonella; and, either tetanus, typhoid fever, diphtheria, syphilis, or leprosy. In some embodiments, the bacterial disease can be a bacterial vaginosis; bacterial meningitis; bacterial pneumonia; urinary tract infection, including E. coli. Infections; bacterial gastroenteritis, also including E. coli; and, bacterial skin infections, including impetigo from S. aureus and S. pyogenes, Erysipelas from Streptococcus, and cellulitis which can include connective tissue. In some embodiments, the bacterial disease can be selected from the group consisting of the diseases in Table 4.

TABLE 4 United Australia Hong Kong Malaysia Kingdom United States Anaplasmosis Anthrax Anthrax Anthrax Botulism Botulism Botulism Botulism Brucellosis Brucellosis Brucellosis Campylobacteriosis Chancroid Chlamydia Chlamydia trachomatis Cholera Cholera Cholera Cholera Cholera Diphtheria Diphtheria Diphtheria Diphtheria Diphtheria Donovanosis Ehrlichiosis Shiga toxin- and Escherichia Escherichia verocytotoxin- coli O157:H7 coli O157:H7 producing infection or Shiga-toxin Escherichia coli producing (STEC/VTEC) Escherichia coli Encephalitis Encephalitis Gonococcal Gonococcal Gonorrhea infection infection/Gonorrhea Haemolytic Haemolytic Hemolytic uraemic syndrome uraemic uremic (HUS) syndrome syndrome, (HUS) post-diarrheal Haemophilus Haemophilus Haemophilus influenzae serotype influenzae type influenzae, b (Hib) b infection invasive (invasive) disease Legionellosis Legionnaire's Legionnaire's Legionellosis Disease Disease Leprosy Leprosy Leprosy Leprosy Hansen's disease (Leprosy) Leptospirosis Leptospirosis Listeriosis Listeriosis Listeriosis Lyme disease Meningococcal Meningococcal Meningococcal Meningococcal septicaemia/ disease disease infection Acute (invasive) Meningitis MSRA: Community- associated methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection Paratyphoid Paratyphoid fever Paratyphoid fever fever Pertussis Pertussis Pertussis Pertussis (Whooping cough) (Whooping (Whooping cough) (Whooping cough) cough) Plague Plague Plague Plague Plague (bubonic, (bubonic, septicemic, septicemic, pneumonic and pneumonic pharyngeal) and pharyngeal) Psittacosis Psittacosis Psittacosis Q fever Q fever Q Fever, acute and chronic Relapsing Relapsing fever fever Rickettsiosis Rickettsiosis, spotted fever Scarlet fever Scarlet fever Salmonellosis Salmonellosis Shigellosis Bacillary Shigellosis dysentery Group A Group A Streptococcal Streptococcal disease disease Pneumococcal Streptococcus disease pneumoniae, invasive disease Streptococcus suis infection Syphilis Syphilis Syphilis Tetanus Tetanus Tetanus Tetanus Tetanus Toxic shock syndrome (Streptococcal and other than Streptococcal) Tuberculosis Tuberculosis Tuberculosis Tuberculosis Tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tularemia Tularemia Typhoid fever Typhoid fever Typhoid fever Typhoid fever Typhoid fever Typhus and Typhus Typhus other rickettsial diseases Vancomycin Intermediate Staph Aureus (VISA), Vancomycin Resistant Staph Aureus (VRSA) Administering an Anti-Oxidant Therapy

The LSE taught herein can be used in antioxidant therapy. One of skill will appreciate that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are widely believed to cause or aggravate several human pathologies such as arthritis, neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, heart disease, stroke and many other ailments. Antioxidants can be used to counteract the harmful effects of ROS and therefore prevent or treat oxidative stress-related diseases. In some embodiments, the LES taught herein can be used as a free radical scavenger, or to prevent oxidation in the body. In some embodiments, the LES taught herein can be used to treat inflammatory disorders, endocrine disorders, cardiovascular disease, aging, as well as to serve as a neuroprotective agent. In some embodiments, the LES taught herein can be used to treat atherosclerosis. And, in some embodiments, the LES can be administered in combination with a cholesterol medication such as an absorption blocker, a synthesis inhibitors and a niacin-based drug. In some embodiments, a non-drug alternative can be used, such as beta-glucan from whole oats or barley; psyllium from wheat bran; or, phytosterols and/or phytostanols.

In some embodiments, the absorption blocker can be cholestyramine or ZETIA. In some embodiments, the synthesis inhibitor can be a statin including, but not limited to, MEVACOR, PRAVACHOL, ZOCOR, LIPITOR, LESCOL, CRESTOR, or LIVALO. In some embodiments, the synthesis inhibitor can be LOVASTATIN, PRAVASTATIN, or SIMVASTATIN. In some embodiments, the niacin-based medication can be NIASPAN or NIACOR. In some embodiments, the cholesterol medication can be a combination product such as MEVACOR with NIASPAN, or ZETIA with ZOCOR.

Methods of Administration

Any administration vehicle known to one of skill to be suitable for administration of the compounds, compositions, and formulations taught herein can be used. A “vehicle” can refer to, for example, a diluent, excipient or carrier with which a compound is administered to a subject.

The terms “administration” or “administering” can be used to refer to a method of incorporating a composition into or onto the cells or tissues of a subject, either in vivo or ex vivo to test the activity of a system, as well as to diagnose, prevent, treat, or ameliorate a symptom of a disease or condition. In one example, a compound can be administered to a subject in vivo using any means of administration taught herein. In another example, a compound can be administered ex vivo by combining the compound with cell tissue from the subject for purposes that include, but are not limited to, assays for determining utility and efficacy of a composition. And, of course, the compositions can be used in vitro to test their stability, activity, toxicity, efficacy, and the like. When the compound is incorporated in the subject in combination with one or active agents, the terms “administration” or “administering” can include sequential or concurrent incorporation of the compound with the other agents such as, for example, any agent described above. A composition can be formulated, in some embodiments, to be compatible merely with its intended route of administration.

Any dosage form known to one of skill can be used for administrations that include, for example, parenteral and non-parenteral administrations. In some embodiments, the composition is in a dosage form for administration topically. And, in some embodiments, the composition is in a dosage form for administration orally. In some embodiments, the dosage form can be a capsule or an injectable fluid. The composition can also be used as a dietary supplement. The term “dosage unit” can refer to discrete, predetermined quantities of a compound that can be administered as unitary dosages to a subject. A predetermined quantity of active compound can be selected to produce a desired therapeutic effect and can be administered with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The predetermined quantity in each unit dosage can depend on factors that include, but are not limited to, (a) the unique characteristics of the active compound and the particular therapeutic effect to be achieved, and (b) the limitations inherent in the art of creating and administering such dosage units.

A “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” is a diluent, adjuvant, excipient, or vehicle with which the composition is administered. A carrier is pharmaceutically acceptable after approval by a state or federal regulatory agency or listing in the U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention or other generally recognized sources for use in subjects. The pharmaceutical carriers include any and all physiologically compatible solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like. Examples of pharmaceutical carriers include, but are not limited to, sterile liquids, such as water, oils and lipids such as, for example, phospholipids and glycolipids. These sterile liquids include, but are not limited to, those derived from petroleum, animal, vegetable or synthetic origin such as, for example, peanut oil, soybean oil, mineral oil, sesame oil, and the like.

Suitable pharmaceutical excipients include, but are not limited to, starch, sugars, inert polymers, glucose, lactose, sucrose, gelatin, malt, rice, flour, chalk, silica gel, sodium stearate, glycerol monostearate, talc, sodium chloride, dried skim milk, glycerol, propylene glycol, water, ethanol, and the like. In some embodiments, the composition can also contain minor amounts of wetting agents, emulsifying agents, pH buffering agents, or a combination thereof. Oral formulations, for example, can include standard carriers such as, for example, pharmaceutical grades mannitol, lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, sodium saccharine, cellulose, magnesium carbonate, and the like. See Martin, E. W. Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences.

As described herein, the compositions can take the form of lotions, creams, suspensions, emulsions, tablets, pills, capsules, powders, sustained-release formulations and the like. In some embodiments, the compositions or formulations can be administered to a subject in any non-parenteral manner known to one of skill whereas, in contrast, a parenteral administration involves piercing the skin or a mucous membrane. Depending on the target tissue, the administration can be topical, oral, ocular, otologic, nasal, urogenital, rectal, dermal, vaginal or otherwise to a mucous membrane. Oral administration, for example, can include digestive tract, buccal, and sublingual administration, and a solid or liquid carrier can be used. One of skill will appreciate that the therapeutic program selected, the agents administered, the condition of the subject, and the effects desired, can affect the administration schedule and program used.

The compositions or formulations can be contained in forms that include tablets, troches, capsules, elixirs, beverages, suspensions, syrups, wafers, chewing gums, gels, hydrogels, and the like. Tablets, pills, capsules, troches liquids and the like may also contain binders, excipients, disintegrating agent, lubricants, glidants, chelating agents, buffers, tonicity modifiers, surfactants, sweetening agents, and flavoring agents. Some examples of binders include microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth or gelatin. Some examples of excipients include starch or maltodextrin. Some examples of disintegrating agents include alginic acid, corn starch and the like. Some examples of lubricants include magnesium stearate or potassium stearate. An example of a chelating agent is EDTA. Some examples of buffers are acetates, citrates or phosphates. Some examples of tonicity modifiers include sodium chloride and dextrose. Some examples of surfactants for micellation or increasing cell permeation include coconut soap, anionic, cationic or ethoxylate detergents. An example of a glidant is colloidal silicon dioxide. Some examples of sweetening agents include sucrose, saccharin and the like. Some examples of flavoring agents include peppermint, chamomile, orange flavoring and the like.

In the digestive tract, for example, a solid can include a pill, capsule, tablet, or time-release technology in some embodiments; and, a liquid can include a solution, soft gel, suspension, emulsion, syrup, elixir, tincture, or a hydrogel. Digestive tract administration can include oral or rectal administration using any method known to one of skill. For buccal, sublingual, and sublabial administration, a solid can include an orally disintegrating tablet, a film, a lollipop, a lozenge, or chewing gum; and, a liquid can include a mouthwash, a toothpaste, an ointment, or an oral spray.

One of skill understands that the amount of the agents administered can vary according to factors such as, for example, the type of disease, age, sex, and weight of the subject, as well as the method of administration. Dosage regimens may also be adjusted to optimize a therapeutic response. In some embodiments, a single bolus may be administered; several divided doses may be administered over time; the dose may be proportionally reduced or increased; or, any combination thereof, as indicated by the exigencies of the therapeutic situation and factors known to one of skill in the art. It is to be noted that dosage values may vary with the severity of the condition to be alleviated, as well as whether the administration is prophylactic, such that the condition has not actually onset or produced symptoms. Dosage regimens may be adjusted over time according to the individual need and the professional judgment of the person administering or supervising the administration of the compositions, and any dosage ranges set forth herein are exemplary only and do not limit the dosage ranges that may be selected.

An “effective amount” of a compound can be used to describe a therapeutically effective amount or a prophylactically effective amount. An effective amount can also be an amount that ameliorates the symptoms of a disease. A “therapeutically effective amount” can refer to an amount that is effective at the dosages and periods of time necessary to achieve a desired therapeutic result and may also refer to an amount of active compound, prodrug or pharmaceutical agent that elicits any biological or medicinal response in a tissue, system, or subject that is sought by a researcher, veterinarian, medical doctor or other clinician that may be part of a treatment plan leading to a desired effect. In some embodiments, the therapeutically effective amount should be administered in an amount sufficient to result in amelioration of one or more symptoms of a disorder, prevention of the advancement of a disorder, or regression of a disorder. In some embodiments, for example, a therapeutically effective amount can refer to the amount of an agent that provides a measurable response of at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, or at least 100% of a desired action of the composition.

In cases of the prevention or inhibition of the onset of a disease or disorder, or where an administration is considered prophylactic, a prophylactically effective amount of a composition or formulation taught herein can be used. A “prophylactically effective amount” can refer to an amount that is effective at the dosages and periods of time necessary to achieve a desired prophylactic result, such as prevent the onset of a sunburn, an inflammation, allergy, nausea, diarrhea, infection, and the like. Typically, a prophylactic dose is used in a subject prior to the onset of a disease, or at an early stage of the onset of a disease, to prevent or inhibit onset of the disease or symptoms of the disease. A prophylactically effective amount may be less than, greater than, or equal to a therapeutically effective amount.

In some embodiments, a therapeutically or prophylactically effective amount of a composition may range in concentration from about 0.01 nM to about 0.10 M; from about 0.01 nM to about 0.5 M; from about 0.1 nM to about 150 nM; from about 0.1 nM to about 500 μM; from about 0.1 nM to about 1000 nM, 0.001 μM to about 0.10 M; from about 0.001 μM to about 0.5 M; from about 0.01 μM to about 150 μM; from about 0.01 μM to about 500 μM; from about 0.01 μM to about 1000 nM, or any range therein. In some embodiments, the compositions may be administered in an amount ranging from about 0.005 mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg; from about 0.005 mg/kg to about 400 mg/kg; from about 0.01 mg/kg to about 300 mg/kg; from about 0.01 mg/kg to about 250 mg/kg; from about 0.1 mg/kg to about 200 mg/kg; from about 0.2 mg/kg to about 150 mg/kg; from about 0.4 mg/kg to about 120 mg/kg; from about 0.15 mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg, from about 0.15 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg, from about 0.5 mg/kg to about 10 mg/kg, or any range therein, wherein a human subject is often assumed to average about 70 kg.

In some embodiments, the compositions or formulations can be administered in conjunction with at least one other therapeutic agent for the condition being treated. The amounts of the agents can be reduced, even substantially, such that the amount of the agent or agents desired is reduced to the extent that a significant response is observed from the subject. A “significant response” can include, but is not limited to, a reduction or elimination of a symptom, a visible increase in a desirable therapeutic effect, a faster response to the treatment, a more selective response to the treatment, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the other therapeutic agent can be administered, for example, in an amount ranging from about 0.1 μg/kg to about 1 mg/kg, from about 0.5 μg/kg to about 500 μg/kg, from about 1 μg/kg to about 250 μg/kg, from about 1 μg/kg to about 100 μg/kg from about 1 μg/kg to about 50 μg/kg, or any range therein. Combination therapies can be administered, for example, for 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 8 hours, 12 hours, 18 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, 6 days, 7 days, 8 days, 9 days, 10 days, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 4 weeks, 6 weeks, 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, 2 years. any combination thereof, or any amount of time considered desirable by one of skill. The agents can be administered concomitantly, sequentially, or cyclically to a subject. Cycling therapy involves the administering a first agent for a predetermined period of time, administering a second agent or therapy for a second predetermined period of time, and repeating this cycling for any desired purpose such as, for example, to enhance the efficacy of the treatment. The agents can also be administered concurrently. The term “concurrently” is not limited to the administration of agents at exactly the same time, but rather means that the agents can be administered in a sequence and time interval such that the agents can work together to provide additional benefit. Each agent can be administered separately or together in any appropriate form using any appropriate means of administering the agent or agents. One of skill can readily select the frequency, duration, and perhaps cycling of each concurrent administration.

Each of the agents described herein can be administered to a subject in combination therapy. In some embodiments, the agents can be administered at points in time that vary by about 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 8 hours, 12 hours, 18 hours, 24 hours, 48 hours or 1 week in time. In some embodiments, at least one of the agents is an immunomodulatory agent. In other embodiments, the agents can include antiproliferatives, antineoplastics, antimitotics, anti-inflammatories, antiplatelets, anticoagulants, antifibrins, antithrombins, antibiotics, antiallergics, antioxidants, and any prodrugs, codrugs, metabolites, analogs, homologues, congeners, derivatives, salts and combinations thereof.

Without intending to be limited to any theory or mechanism of action, the following examples are provided to further illustrate the teachings presented herein. It should be appreciated that there are several variations contemplated within the skill in the art, and that the examples are not intended to be construed as providing limitations to the claims.

Example 1. A Method of Removing a Whole Saliva from a Leech

This example shows that leeches can be fed a phagostimulatory agent, induced to regurgitate the agent to collect the whole saliva as an unrefined, whole saliva in the regurgitation, and then be revitalized for reprocessing to collect more saliva. The regurgitation can be induced, for example, by significantly lowering the leeches body temperature to a state of paralysis or near-paralysis to induce a vomiting. The leeches can then be warmed to re-animate, or revitalize, the leeches for storage and/or the reprocessing to collect more saliva.

The leeches were collected by a local supplier from the natural lake, Cheneh, located in Terengganu, Malaysia. The leeches were maintained at room temperature under 12 h:12 h light and dark cycle in well-aerated plastic containers filled with un-chlorinated tap water which was regularly changed every 2-3 days.

FIG. 1 illustrates a method of feeding a phagostimulatory agent to a leech using a membrane, according to some embodiments. As shown in FIG. 1, the leeches 105 were fed a solution of the phagostimulatory agent 110 comprising 0.001M arginine in normal saline. The leeches 105 were fed using the feeding device having the parafilm membrane 120 stretched across the glass funnel 100 filled with the phagostimulatory solution 110 warmed at a temperature of 37° C. The starved leeches 105 attach to the membrane 120, feed by sucking the phagostimulatory solution 110 through the membrane 120 until satiated, and drop spontaneously.

FIGS. 2A-2C illustrate the collection of unrefined, whole saliva extract, according to some embodiments. The engorged leeches 105 that were fed the phagostimulatory solution 110 were transferred to polypropylene containers 205 as shown in FIG. 2A, immersed in an ice bath 210 for about 15 to about 20 minutes as shown in FIG. 2B, and induced to vomit an unrefined, whole saliva 215 as shown in FIG. 2C.

The low temperature induced a regurgitation of the phagostimulatory solution 110, as well as a sort of paralysis or near-paralysis of the leech 105. The paralyzed leeches 105 were squeezed to remove additional unrefined whole saliva 215 without harming the leeches 105. A valuable process consideration is that the leeches 105 were found to readily regain their activity by immersing them in a warm water bath at 37° C. for about 15 to about 30 min, after which they are revitalized and can be stored for re-use.

The unrefined whole saliva was a colorless fluid that was pooled and centrifuged at 4° C. and 9000 rpm for 15 min to remove solids and refine the whole saliva. To further refine the whole saliva, the supernatant was filtered using a 0.45 μm filter paper. The refined leech saliva extract was aliquoted in amber flat-bottom glass tubes in amounts that did not exceed 2 ml for a 24-hour lyophilization cycle. Before lyophilization, the refined extracts were frozen at −80° C. for 30 min. After lyophilizations, the refined extracts were kept at −80° C. in the closed, amber flat-bottom glass tubes.

Example 2. Chemical Characterization of the Leech Saliva Extract

This example provides a chemical characterization of the refined, leech saliva extract (LSE).

Standard procedures known to those of skill were used to produce UV spectra of the LSE. The spectra were obtained by scanning and measuring the λ_(max), showing an optimum protein spectrum with 2λ_(max) values at 199 nm and 207 nm.

FIG. 3 illustrates a UV spectra of the refined, leech saliva extract, according to some embodiments. The spectra of leeches' saliva extract were determined using UV spectrophotometer in the following steps: a) UV lamp was warmed up for about 15 min, b) the instrument was adjusted to spectrum mode, c) wavelengths were adjusted to a λ_(min)=190 nm, and a λ_(max)=800 nm, d) a blank (the phagostimulatory solution) was used to calibrate to zero.

Standard procedures known to those of skill were used to produce a quantitative colorimetic protein assay, in which a reagent kit having bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a standard protein was used. Bradford, M. M. Anal. Biochem. 72: 248-254(1976). A phagostimulatory solution having 0.001M arginine in 0.15M NaCl was used as a blank, and a series of known-concentrations of BSA 10 μg/ml to 250 μg/ml) were prepared in the phagostimulatory solution. Three dilutions of the LSE were prepared in the phagostimulatory solution, and 100-μl volumes of the BSA, LSE and blank were aliquoted in EPPENDROF tubes with an equal volume of Bradford reagent and mixed well. The absorbance at 595 nm (A₅₉₅) were measured using a microplate reader. The A₅₉₅ values of the blank were subtracted from those of BSA and LSE, and a standard curve of the known concentrations of BSA against their A₅₉₅ values was prepared to determine total protein concentration of the leech saliva extract from the plot.

FIG. 4 illustrates a standard curve for a colorimetric Bradford protein assay, according to some embodiments. The standard curve was Y=0.001X−0.011, where: X=BSA concentration (μg/ml) and Y=absorbance at 595 nm, R²=0.993. It was found that the total protein concentration of the colorless LSE collected from leeches starved for 16 weeks was 119.691±8.690 μg/ml, whereas leeches starved for 22-weeks yielded LSE with a total protein concentration of 62.682±2.459 μg/ml. Table 2 describes the total protein concentration results of LSE collected from leeches starved for 16 and 22 weeks as the mean of triplicates, expressed as the mean±standard deviation SD (n=3).

TABLE 2 Absorbance A₅₉₅ Replicate 1 Replicate 2 Replicate 3 A₅₉₅ BSA conc. (μg/ml) 12.5 0.007 0.006 0.000 0.004 ± 0.004 25 0.017 0.024 0.021 0.021 ± 0.003 50 0.074 0.067 0.069 0.070 ± 0.003 100 0.120 0.123 0.127 0.124 ± 0.003 125 0.170 0.172 0.173 0.171 ± 0.002 150 0.194 0.205 0.204 0.201 ± 0.006 Blank Arg/NaCl (μl) 100 0.287 0.285 0.277 0.283 ± 0.005 LSE volume (μl) Starvation 80 0.080 0.087 0.099 0.088 ± 0.010 period 16 90 0.095 0.112 0.098 0.102 ± 0.009 weeks 100 0.098 0.099 0.099 0.099 ± 0.000 Starvation 80 0.037 0.045 0.040 0.041 ± 0.004 period 22 90 0.044 0.042 0.043 0.043 ± 0.001 weeks 100 0.053 0.056 0.048 0.052 ± 0.004 Total protein concentration in LSE (μg/ml) Starvation period 124.333 125.074 109.667 119.691 ± 8.690  16 weeks (November) Starvation period 64.750 59.963 63.333 62.682 ± 2.459  22 weeks (December)

Standard gel electrophoresis procedures known to those of skill were used to produce molecular weight distributions of the LSE. The separation of molecules within a gel is determined by the relative size of the pores formed within the gel. The pore size of a gel is determined by two factors, the total amount of acrylamide present (designated as % T) and the amount of cross-linker (% C). As the total amount of acrylamide increases, the pore size decreases.

Laemmli SDS-PAGE Gel Electrophoresis of LSE

The Laemmli SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis method is commonly used and known to one of skill in the art. The method is widely-used to separate proteins based on electrophoretic mobility.

Stock Solutions and Buffers:

Stock solutions and buffers were prepared for a Laemmli SDS-PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel) gel electrophoresis as follows:

In preparing stock solutions, an acrylamide/bisacrylamide (30% T, 2.67% C) (AB 30) was prepared, calculating % C and % T according to (Hjerten, 1962):

${{\%\mspace{14mu} T} = \frac{{g\mspace{14mu}{acrylamide}} + {g\mspace{14mu}{bisacrylamide}}}{100\mspace{14mu}{ml}\mspace{14mu}{solution}}};{and}$ ${{\%\mspace{14mu} C} = {\left( \frac{g\mspace{14mu}{acrylamide}}{{g\mspace{14mu}{acrylamide}} + {g\mspace{14mu}{bisacrylamide}}} \right) \times 100}};$

such that 29.2 g acrylamide 29.2 g and 0.8 g bisacrylamide were dissolved in distilled water and the volume was brought to 100 ml in a volumetric flask. The solution was filtered by using WHATMAN filter paper grade 1 under vacuum. The solution was kept in a dark container at 4° C. A 10% (w/v) SDS was prepared by dissolving 10 g of SDS in 90 ml water with gentle stirring and the volume was brought to 100 ml with distilled water in a volumetric flask. The solution was kept in room temperature.

In preparing the 10% APS (ammonium persulfate; prepared and used fresh daily) stock solution as a polymerization initiator, 100 mg of APS was dissolved in 1 ml of distilled water and used immediately.

In preparing a 1.5M tris-HCl, pH 8.8 buffer, 18.15 g of Tris base (tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane) was dissolved in 80 ml distilled water, and the pH was adjusted to 8.8 with 6N HCl. The total volume was brought to 100 ml with distilled water and stored at 4° C.

In preparing a 0.5 M tris-HCl buffer, pH 6.8, 6 g of the Tris base was dissolved in 60 ml distilled water. The pH was adjusted to 6.8 with 6 N HCl. The total volume was brought to 100 ml with distilled water and store at 4° C.

In preparing an SDS reducing buffer (sample buffer), 1.25 ml of 0.5M tris-HCl was mixed with 2.5 ml glycerol, 2 ml of the 10% SDS, and 0.2 ml of 0.5% (w/v) bromophenol blue. The total volume was brought to 10 ml with distilled water in a volumetric flask. The buffer was stored at room temperature. 50 μl β-mercaptoethanol were added to 950 μl sample buffer at the time of use.

In preparing a 10× electrode (running) buffer, pH 8.3, 30.3 g of the Tris base, 144.0 g glycine, and 10.0 g SDS were dissolved in distilled water under gentle stirring and the last volume was brought to 1 liter with distilled water. The buffer was kept at room temperature. When running the gel, 100 ml of this buffer were taken and the volume was brought to 1 liter.

Making the Gel:

The gel electrophoresis procedure was run using a mini protein tetra cell BIO RAD instrument. The gel (6×8 cm×1 mm) was prepared using glass plates, a gel caster, a resolving gel, and a stacking gel as follows:

In preparing a resolving gel 15%, 5 ml of the acrylamide/bisacrylamide stock solution, 2.4 ml distilled water, 2.5 ml of the pH 8.8 tris buffer and 0.1 ml of the SDS stock solution were mixed and degassed for about 15 min, and 50 μl of the APS stock solution and 5 μl of TEMED (N, N, N′, N′-tetramethylethylenediamine) were added.

In preparing the stacking gel, 1.7 ml of the acrylamide/bisacrylamide stock solution, 5.7 ml distilled water, 2.5 ml of the pH 6.8 tris buffer, and 0.1 ml SDS were mixed and degassed for about 15 min. 50 μl of the APS stock solution and 10 μl of TEMED were added.

The resolving gel was poured into the gel slabs using a plastic syringe and 1.5 cm over the separating gel was left empty for the stacking gel. 100 μl isopropanol were laid on the surface of the gel for smoothness and to avoid dehydration, and the gel was allowed to polymerize for about 45 minutes. The isopropanol was removed after polymerization of the resolving gel, and stacking gel was added after washing the surface of the resolving gel with a separating gel buffer. A comb was added to form cells, and the stacking gel was allowed to polymerize for about 30 minutes, and the comb was removed from the gel. The cells were washed with the electrophoresis buffer, and the gel slab was placed in the electrophoresis tank, and the tank was filled with the electrophoresis buffer.

Preparing the LSE:

the LSE was lyophilized as described herein, and the LSE powder was dissolved in a sample buffer and heated at 95° C. for 5 min in a water bath. SDS was added to the sample buffer to help in the denaturation of proteins, masking the surface of proteins with negative charges to balance the charge/size ratio for all proteins, such that the separation will be based only on the size of the protein. Heating the protein samples before loading helps in completely denaturing all proteins, increases solubility and reduction of disulfide reduction without degradation of proteins (Voerman, 1998).

Running the Gel:

the sample was applied to the cells using a micropipette, and a peptide marker was applied to one cell. The electrophoresis lid was placed carefully, the electrodes were attached to a power source, and the electrophoresis was run for 35 minutes at 200V.

Coomassie Brilliant Blue dye was used to visualize proteins and determine molecular weights from the polyacrylamide gels. A 1 L stock dye solution was prepared by dissolving 1 g Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 in 450 ml methanol and 100 ml glacial acetic acid. Distilled water was added to increase total volume to 1 L. The stock dye solution was filtered using WHATMAN filter paper grade 1 and kept at room temperature. A 1 L destaining solution was prepared by mixing 100 ml methanol with 100 ml glacial acetic acid and adding distilled water to increase the total volume to 1 L.

After electrophoresis, the gel was transferred to a plastic container containing stock dye solution and left there for 30 minutes. The staining solution was discarded and the gel was incubated in the destaining solution for 30 minutes with agitation. This step was repeated three to four times with fresh destaining solution, and the gel was incubated in destaining solution overnight. The gel was imaged and documented using a BIO RAD gel imager.

Non-Urea SDS-PAGE Gel Electrophoresis of LSE for Peptides

This portion of the gel electrophoresis analysis was performed according to the Okajima method, which is considered to give better results for peptides. (Okajima, et al., 1993). The method generally uses the same stock solutions and buffers as the Laemmli SDS-PAGE method, an exception being the separating gel buffer.

Separating/Stacking Gel Buffer:

a 3M tris-HCl, pH 8.45 buffer was made by dissolving 36.3 g of the Tris base in distilled water, pH was adjusted to 8.45 with 6N HCl, and the total volume was brought to 100 ml with distilled water.

Making the Gel:

In preparing the resolving (separating) gel 19.2%, 10 ml of the AB 30 stock solution was mixed with 3.75 ml of the separating buffer, 0.15 ml SDS, and 1 ml water. The mixture was degassed for 15 min using the sonicator, and 50 μl of the APS stock solution and 10 μl of the TEMED stock solution were added. The mixture was poured into the gel slabs using a plastic syringe and allowed to polymerize for 45 minutes. In preparing the stacking gel 4%, 1.3 ml of the AB 30 stock solution was mixed with 2.5 ml stacking gel buffer, 0.1 ml SDS, and 6 ml water. The mixture was degassed for 15 minutes before adding APS 50 μl and TEMED 10 μl. The sample buffer used for the Laemmli method above was used for this method.

Preparing the LSE and Running the Gel:

the LSE was lyophilized as described herein, and the LSE powder was dissolved in a sample buffer and heated at 95° C. for 5 min in a water bath. SDS was added to the sample buffer to help in the denaturation of proteins, masking the surface of proteins with negative charges to balance the charge/size ratio for all proteins, such that the separation will be based only on the size of the protein. 20 μl of the sample was applied for the gel. The gel was run for 100 minutes at 100V. Commassie blue staining was used to stain the gel.

Tricine SDS-PAGE Gel Electrophoresis of LSE for Peptides in the Range of 1-100 kDa

This portion of the gel electrophoresis analysis was performed according to a tricine SDS-PAGE method commonly used to separate proteins in the smaller molecular weight range of 1-100 kDa, and preferably used for resolving proteins smaller than 30 kDa. The use of tricine instead of glycine as a reduction agent provides a better separation of peptides having such low molecular weights.

Stock Solutions and Buffers:

The AB 30 stock solution, 10% (w/v) SDS, 10% (w/v) APS, and the sample buffer (SDS reducing buffer) is the same as that used in the Laemmli SDS-PAGE method described herein; and, the separating (stacking) gel buffer of Okajima method is used. Otherwise, this method generally uses the same stock solutions and buffers as the Laemmli SDS-PAGE method.

A 10× cathode buffer was prepared by dissolving 12.1 g Tris base, tricine, and 1 g SDS in distilled water. The total volume was brought to 100 ml, and the solution was kept at room temperature. The buffer was diluted 10 times before use. In addition, a 10× anode buffer was prepared by dissolving 12.1 g Tris base in water and adjusting pH to 8.9 with HCl 6 N. The total volume was brought to 100 ml, and the solution was kept at room temperature. The buffer was diluted 10 times before use.

A fixation solution of 5% glutaraldehyde was prepared by add 10 ml of a 50% glutaraldehyde to distilled water and bringing the total volume to 100 ml. The solution was filtered using WHATMAN filter paper grade 1 under a fume hood and used fresh.

Making the Gel:

The gels were made according to methods known in the art. (Schägger & von Jagow, 1987). In preparing the resolving (separating) gel 16%, 5 ml of AB 30 was mixed with 5 ml of the separating buffer, 1.5 ml glycerol, and 1.5 ml distilled water. The mixture was degassed for 15 minutes, and 50 μl of the APS stock solution and 5 μl of the TEMED stock solution were added. The gel was poured to the gel slab without delay. The surface of gel was covered by 100 μl isopropanol and allowed to polymerize for 45 minutes. In preparing the stacking gel 4%, 1 ml of the AB 30 was mixed with 3 ml gel buffer, and 11 ml distilled water. The mixture was degassed for 15 minutes, and 100 μl of the APS stock solution and 10 μl of the TEMED stock solution were added. Without delay, the gel was poured to the gel slab. The comb was positioned, and the gel was allowed to polymerize for 30 minutes.

Preparing the LSE and Running the Gel:

the LSE was lyophilized as described herein, and the LSE powder was dissolved in a sample buffer and heated at 95° C. for 5 min in a water bath. SDS was added to the sample buffer to help in the denaturation of proteins, masking the surface of proteins with negative charges to balance the charge/size ratio for all proteins, such that the separation will be based only on the size of the protein. 20 μl of the sample was applied for the gel. The gel was run for 5 hours, running at 40V for the first 3 hours and increasing voltage by 10V every 30 minutes. After electrophoresis, the gel was washed with distilled water for 5 minutes and repeated three times. The washed gel was transferred to a container of the fixer solution for 1 hour and washed with distilled water to remove the glutaraldehyde. The fixed gel was placed in Commassie blue staining solution for 30 min with gentle agitation. The destaining solution was applied for 30 min with agitation, and this step was repeated several times until the band became clear.

The Gel Electrophoresis Results

FIG. 5 shows the LSE protein molecular weight distribution results of a Malaysian leech, Hirudinaria manillensis, using the Laemmli SDS-PAGE 15% gel electrophoresis, according to some embodiments. Lane 1 is the peptide marker, and lanes 1-4 represent the week number at which the saliva was extracted in duplicate; wherein, lanes 1-1′ are week 2, lanes 2-2′ are week 3, lanes 3-3′ are week 4, and lanes 4-4′ are week 0. As can be seen, the method works well, as the results showed good resolution with highly isolated bands.

FIG. 6 shows the LSE protein molecular weight distribution results of a Malaysian leech, Hirudinaria manillensis, using the Laemmli SDS-PAGE 15% gel electrophoresis, wherein the LSE was concentrated using acetone precipitation, according to some embodiments. This method showed a high resolution and clear bands, with a protein molecular weight distribution ranging from 10812 Da to 88210 Da. Lanes 1 and 2 are LSE, and lane 4 is the peptide marker.

FIG. 7 shows the LSE protein molecular weight distribution results of a Malaysian leech, Hirudinaria manillensis, using the Laemmli SDS-PAGE 15% gel electrophoresis, wherein the LSE was precipitated from solution using a trichloroacetic acid (TCA) precipitation, according to some embodiments. The results show clear bands with a high resolution, although acetone precipitation gave better resolution for the proteins bands. Lanes 2 and 3 are LSE, and lane 1 is the peptide marker.

FIG. 8 shows the LSE protein molecular weight distribution results of a Malaysian leech, Hirudinaria manillensis, using the Non-Urea SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis of Okajima, according to some embodiments. Smaller molecular weight peptides and proteins were shown having good resolution with clear bands. The molecular weight range is wider compared to the classic Laemmli SDS-PAGE method, as proteins as small as 6.5 kDa were detected. Lanes 2 and 3 are LSE, and lane 1 is the peptide marker.

FIG. 9 shows the LSE protein molecular weight distribution results of a Malaysian leech, Hirudinaria manillensis, using the Tricine SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis method, according to some embodiments. The results showed more than 20 proteins and peptides ranging in molecular weight from 4276 Da to 44386 Da. Lanes 2 and 3 are LSE, and lane 1 is the peptide marker.

The data compared well to known literature values of Hirudinaria species, such as bufridin (7 kDa), manillase (58 kDa), hirullin P18 (6.8 kDa) and gelin (8.2 kDa). The data suggested other proteins may be shared with other species, such as Calin (65 kDa), Destabilase lysozym (12 kDa), lefaxin (30 kDa), Hirudin (7 kDa) and hyaloronidase (28.5 kDa).

Reverse-Phase HPLC of LSE

This example shows how to use analytical chromatography (Buffer (A), 0.1% TFA in water and Buffer (B), 0.1% TFA in acetonitrile) of the crude saliva extract to identify more than 30 peaks with high resolution in the LSE. In particular, reverse-phase HPLC (RP-HPLC) can be used.

Materials and Methods:

An Agilent C₁₈ RP column, buffer (A) 0.1% TFA in water, buffer (B) 0.1% TFA in acetonitrile, a 1 ml/min flow rate, and a 5% gradient: 5% (B) over 5 min, 5-90% (B) over 40 min wavelength 214 nm, A lyophilized saliva, B fresh saliva. The lyophilized saliva extract after reconstitution in distilled was applied to the C₁₈ RP column at a flow rate of 1 ml/min, and a gradient of 5% of (B) over 5 min, followed by 5%-90% (B) over 40 min, and then 90% of (B) over 5 min, and finally 90%-5% of (B) over 5 min. The UV detector was set at 214 nm, and a volume 100 μl was injected in the loop. A blank (0.15M saline+0.001M arginine) was run before each analysis.

FIGS. 10A and 10B show the results of RP-HPLC in the analysis of LSE, according to some embodiments. As shown, the results were the same, or at least substantially similar, for lyophilized (FIG. 10A) and fresh (FIG. 10B) saliva extracts.

FIG. 11 shows isolation of LSE proteins using RP-HPLC, according to some embodiments. As can be seen, 30 peaks were isolated from the LSE. Examples of two isolated proteins from the LSE are indicated by arrows.

FIG. 12 shows the molecular weights of the two isolated proteins using Tricine SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis, according to some embodiments. Lane 1 is the peptide marker, lane 2 is protein 2, and lane 3 is protein 1. The molecular weights of the two isolated proteins, protein 1 and protein 2, were 6289.799 Da and 14244.58 Da, respectively.

Anticoagulant Activity of LSE

This example shows that (i) the lyophilized LSE retains anticoagulant activity, and (ii) active components of the LSE can be identified using known methods. The LSE was frozen at −40° C., lyophilized, dissolved in 60 μl distilled water, and used to assess the anticoagulant activity of isolated portions of the LSE. Isolated proteins were identified and assessed for anticoagulant activity, and the results revealed two active proteins that extend thrombin time. They were given the names. “protein 1” and “protein 2” and prolonged thrombin time by 26.23% and 31.65%, respectively. The isolated proteins were also assessed for inhibition of amidolytic activity of thrombin, and the results show that they inhibited the amidolytic activity of thrombin by 30.61% and 41.22% for protein 1 and protein 2, respectively, confirming the results obtained regarding thrombin time.

The determination of the amidolytic activity of LSE was based on its inhibitory effect on thrombin-induced release of p-nitroanilide from the synthetic substrate of thrombin S-2238 using known methods. (Mao et al., 1987; Schmied, Hoeffken, Hornberger, & Bernard, 1995).

Materials and Methods

-   1. Preparation of the reaction buffer: All reagents used for this     experiment were prepared in phosphate buffered saline-bovine serum     albumin buffer (PBS-BSA, pH 7.4) which contains 0.12M NaCl, 0.01M     sodium phosphate, 0.01% NaN₃ and 0.1% bovine serum albumin. -   2. Thrombin reagent and thrombin substrate S-2238: were prepared in     PBS-BSA to a final concentration of 0.6NIHU thrombin/ml and 100 μM,     respectively. Thrombin substrate solution was preserved at −20° C.     to be used within one month according to storage conditions provided     by the manufacturer. -   3. Amidolytic assay procedures: Volumes of 50 μl of thrombin reagent     were mixed with equal volumes of different dilutions of LSE in the     96-well plate. The plate was shaken gently and incubated for 10 min     at 25° C. in the microplate reader. Thereafter, 100 μl of the     substrate was pipetted and the mixture was agitated. The absorbance     at 405 nm (A₄₀₅) was monitored for eight hours at 5-minute     intervals. Same procedures were done using the phagostimulatory     solution (PhS) as a negative control. Reaction buffer PBS-BSA was     considered as a control. -   4. Calculations: All measurements were repeated in triplicates and     the means were considered.

The percentage inhibition (% inhibition) was calculated from the equation:

${\%\mspace{14mu}{inhibition}} = {\left( \frac{{{Absorbance}\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{control}} - {{Absorbance}\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{LSE}}}{{Absorbance}\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{control}} \right) \times 100}$

FIG. 13 illustrates IC50 of LSE with respect to antithrombin activity, according to some embodiments. The LSE effectively inhibited thrombin-mediated release of the p-nitroanilide from the synthetic substrate (S-2238). The protein concentration that inhibits 50% of thrombin activity (IC₅₀) was determined by plotting the % inhibition against total protein concentration in the LSE, and it was found to be 49.391±2.219 μg/ml. The dose responsive curve of the amidolytic activity of leech saliva extract. Y=2.28X+38.26, where: Y=% inhibition and X=protein concentration (μg/ml), R²=0.878.

Antithrombin activity was determined using a thrombin time (TT) assay in vitro. The following standard protocols were used as provided with THROMBOCLOTIN reagent and a SYSMIX CA 50 COAGULOMETER:

-   -   1. Citrated plasma preparation: prepared from fresh human blood         taken by venipuncture immediately prior to the experiment. Fresh         human blood (4.5 ml) was mixed with sodium citrate in a citrate         tube containing 0.5 ml of 0.11 mol/l sodium citrate (9 parts of         blood: 1 part of sodium citrate). The mixture was centrifuged at         room temperature (25° C.) for 10 min at 3000 rpm. The         supernatant citrated plasma was kept at room temperature (+25 C)         to be used within four hours of preparation.     -   2. Thrombin reagent preparation: Each vial of THROMBOCLOTIN was         reconstituted with 10.0 ml distilled water. The resulted         solution contains 2.5NIHU thrombin/ml and was stable for one         week when stored at 2° C.−8° C.     -   3. Control plasma preparation: a control plasma test was used         before each experiment to evaluate the precision and accuracy of         the reagents used and the coagulometer. One vial of CONTROL N (a         control plasma used to test the instrument) was dissolved in 1.0         ml distilled water, shaken gently and let to stand for 15         minutes at room temperature. The reconstituted control plasma         was kept at −20° C. for a maximum period of four weeks.     -   4. Thrombin time assay: An aliquot 100 μl of the prepared         citrated plasma was pipetted into the pre-warmed coagulation         tube provided with the coagulometer and subsequently incubated         at 37° C. in the coagulation analyzer well for 3 minutes. 100 μl         of the reconstituted thrombin reagent (2.5NIHU thrombin/ml) was         added and the time until coagulation started was measured by the         coagulometer. Different dilutions of the fresh LSE were mixed         with the freshly prepared citrated plasma to yield a final         volume of 100 μl and TT values of the mixtures were measured.         The phagostimulatory solution was used as a negative control.     -   5. Calculations: All measurements were repeated in triplicates         and the means were considered. The percentage increase of         thrombin time (% TT) was calculated from the equation:

${\%\mspace{14mu}{TT}} = {\left( \frac{{{TT}\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{the}\mspace{14mu}{sample}} - {{TT}\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{the}\mspace{14mu}{citrated}\mspace{14mu}{plasma}}}{{TT}\mspace{14mu}{of}\mspace{14mu}{the}\mspace{14mu}{citrated}\mspace{11mu}{plasma}} \right) \times 100}$

Fresh LSE collected from leeches starved for 16 weeks prolonged thrombin time (TT) of the citrated plasma in a dose dependent manner. Leech saliva protein concentration which can increase TT two-fold (IC₁₀₀) was estimated by plotting % TT values against saliva protein concentrations that were mixed with the citrated plasma.

FIG. 14 shows the relationship between thrombin time and the concentration of LSE protein, according to some embodiments. The concentration of LSE protein which increased TT two-fold (IC₁₀₀) was estimated from the curve of saliva protein concentration (μg/ml plasma) versus percentage increase of TT (% TT). Consequently, it was found that IC₁₀₀ was 22.558 μg/ml plasma. The results show that the antithrombotic activity of LSE was a linear function with the protein concentration in plasma, Y=4.953X−11.73, where: Y=% TT and X=protein concentration (μg/ml), R²=0.984.

Example 3. A Method of Creating a Stable, Lyophilized, Whole-Saliva Extract of a Leech

This example shows the substantial effect of lyophilization conditions and storage conditions on the activity and stability of the LSE. Antithrombin activity was used as a measure of the activity and stability of the LSE under the different conditions. Lyophilization conditions such as vessel type, pre-freezing temperature, lyophilization time, and storage conditions were all varied to determine their effects on LSE activity.

The LSE was aliquoted in separate glass and polypropylene tubes each containing 1 ml. The samples were then frozen at −20° C. or −40° C., and the frozen samples were lyophilized for 12, 24, 48 or 72 hours. The antithrombin activity (% TT) of each lyophilized sample was determined and compared with that of the fresh LSE. In addition, glass or polypropylene tubes, each containing 1 ml of lyophilized or non-lyophilized LSE were stored at room temperature, 4° C., and −20° C. Some tubes at room temperature were protected from light by wrapping them with aluminum foil. The antithrombin activity (% TT) of each sample was monitored for a period of six months and compared with that of the fresh LSE.

FIG. 15 shows effects of lyophilization conditions and storage conditions on the activity and stability of the LSE, according to some embodiments. The results are the mean of triplicates±the standard error of the mean SEM (n=3), analyzed using one-way ANOVA and Tukey's HSD post hoc test; p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Freezing at −40° C. before lyophilization significantly (p<0.05) decreased the antithrombotic activity of LSE by 31-34% when compared to the activity of fresh LSE. Freezing at −20° C. before lyophilization provided an antithrombin activity (% TT=60-65%) similar to that of fresh LSE (% TT=62%), regardless the vessel type. The container had no significant effect on LSE activity during lyophilization.

FIG. 16 shows the effect of lyophilization time on antithrombin activity of LSE, according to some embodiments. All samples were lyophilized for 24 h in glass tube. ^(α)p<0.001 when compared with fresh LSE. The results are the mean of triplicates±the standard error of the mean SEM (n=3), analyzed using one-way ANOVA and Tukey's HSD post hoc test; p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Lyophilization for more than 24 hours led to a dramatic decrease 67-80% (p<0.001) in antithrombin activity. Lyophilization for 12-24 hours, on the other hand, retained about 95% of its original activity.

Storage at Room Temperature

After one day of storage, all samples (lyophilized or non-lyophilized) stored at room temperature over time lost activity compared to the initial activity of fresh LSE.

Fresh samples stored in glass tubes exposed to light lost more than 90% activity after one day. Non-lyophilized LSE kept in glass tubes protected from light lost 62.2% activity after one day of storage, and more than 90% after 3 days of storage. Non-lyophilized samples kept in polypropylene tubes showed more than 90% loss of activity after a storage period of one day, regardless of protection from light. Lyophilized LSE kept in glass tubes protected from light for one, three, and seven days lost about 26.5%, 75% and 95% activity, respectively. Lyophilized LSE exposed to light for one day lost about 48% activity, and about 90% after 3-7 days. Lyophilized LSE kept in polypropylene tubes in the dark for one day lost 57% activity, and more than 90% activity after 3 days. Lyophilized LSE kept in polypropylene tubes and exposed to light lost 80%-99% activity over 7 days.

Light significantly affected LSE activity at room temperature. Lyophilized LSE kept in glass tubes protected from light lost 26.5% activity in one day compared to a 48% (p<0.05) activity loss for samples exposed to light. Non-lyophilized samples kept in polypropylene tubes protected from light lost 62.2% activity after one day, and lost about 92% (p<0.001) of their activity when exposed to light.

The type of the container affected activity of LSE when stored at room temperature. Lyophilized samples stored in glass tubes lost 26.5%-47.8% activity, whereas those stored in polypropylene tubes lost 57.1%-84.5% (p<0.05) activity. Non-lyophilized samples kept in glass tubes protected from light lost 62% activity, whereas such samples stored in polypropylene tubes lost 92% (p<0.001) activity in one day protected from light.

Lyophilization provided stability to the LSE at room temperature. Non-lyophilized samples show a substantial loss of activity when compared to lyophilized samples when stored under the same conditions. Non-lyophilized LSE stored in glass tubes protected from light lost 62.2% activity after one day, whereas the lyophilized LSE lost 26.5% activity after one day (p<0.001). After 3-7 days of storage, significant differences between samples were not observed because samples lost a great part of their biological activity (75-95%).

FIG. 17 shows the effect of light, and container on antithrombin activity of LSE samples (lyophilized and non-lyophilized) stored at room temperature for up to 7 days, according to some embodiments. The results are the mean±standard error of the mean SEM (n=3) and analyzed by General Linear Model (GLM), repeated measure ANOVA, using SPSS 18.0 software, and p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. α is significant when compared with fresh LSE (reference control); β is significant when compared with lyophilized LSE stored in glass tubes and protected from light; γ is significant when compared with lyophilized LSE stored in polypropylene tubes and protected from light; ε is significant when compared with non-lyophilized LSE stored in glass tubes and protected from light; and δ is significant when compared with lyophilized LSE in glass tubes in light.

Storage at 4° C.

At a reduced temperature of 4° C., no significant loss of activity occurred in seven days, regardless of sample type or storage conditions. However, all samples showed a significant decrease (p<0.001) in activity after 15 days when compared to the initial activity of fresh saliva (control reference).

Non-lyophilized samples kept in glass tubes retained 100%-97% activity during the seven days. A sharp decline (45%) in activity occurred after 15 days, and longer storage times showed more than a 90% loss of activity. Lyophilized samples kept in glass tubes retained about 100% activity after seven days, lost about 27% of activity after 15 days, and lost about 80-90% activity after 30 days.

Non-lyophilized samples kept in polypropylene containers retained 100-95% activity during the seven days, lost about 47% activity after 15 days, and more than 90% activity after 30 days. Lyophilized saliva samples kept in polypropylene containers lost about 0-9% activity after 3 days, about 13% after 7 days, about 32% after 15 days, and about 85-95% after 30 days.

FIG. 18 shows the effect of storage temperature, light, and container on antithrombin activity of LSE samples (lyophilized and non-lyophilized) for up to 180 days at 4° C., according to some embodiments. After 30 days-180 days, all samples lost 81-98% of their activity. The results are the mean±standard error of the mean SEM (n=3) and analyzed by General Linear Model (GLM), repeated measure ANOVA, using SPSS 18.0 software, and p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. α is significant when compared with fresh LSE (reference control); β is significant when compared with lyophilized LSE stored in glass tubes; γ is significant when compared with lyophilized LSE stored in polypropylene tubes. The type of container only had a minor effect, whereas lyophilization had a significant effect on activity after 15 days of storage. Non-lyophilized samples showed much more activity loss than lyophilized samples. Non-lyophilized samples kept in glass tubes lost 45% activity, while lyophilized counterparts lost 27% after 15 days of storage (p<0.05-0.001). Non-lyophilized samples kept in polypropylene tubes lost 47% compared to a loss of 32% in lyophilized samples (p<0.05) for the same period of 15 days.

Storage at −20° C.

At the storage temperature of −20° C., the type of container and state of the extract were not statistically significant. Non-lyophilized LSE stored in glass tubes lost from 0-6% activity (statistically insignificant) in 15 days at −20° C. After 30 days, about 10% activity was lost. After 90-180 days, a significant loss of about 12-15% (p<0.05) activity was observed. Non-lyophilized LSE kept in polypropylene tubes lost 0-5% (statistically insignificant) activity in 15 days, and about 13-16% (p<0.05) after 30-180 days. Lyophilized LSE stored in glass tubes lost only 0-5% activity in 180 days (statistically insignificant). Lyophilized samples stored in polypropylene tubes lost about 3-6% activity in 15 days and about 13%-20% (statistically significant) after 30-180 days.

FIG. 19 shows the effect of container and lyophilization on antithrombin activity of LSE samples for up to 180 days at −20° C., according to some embodiments. The results are the mean±standard error of the mean SEM (n=3) and analyzed by General Linear Model (GLM), repeated measure ANOVA, using SPSS 18.0 software, and p<0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Example 4. A Method of Treating a Solid Tumor

This example shows the cytotoxic activity of the LSE prepared according to Example 1 in the treatment of a solid tumor.

Reagents:

all reagents prepared as desired under strict sterile conditions per ESCO Class II Biological Safety Cabinet; Leibovitz's L-15 medium (from Sigma-Aldrich); phosphate buffered saline (PBS), 1× sterile solution (from Amresco); L-glutamine (L-Glu, liquid, 200 mM), penicillin/streptomycin (pen/strep, 100×), fetal bovine serum FBS mycoplex and ACCUTASE (a combination of protease and collagen in PBS with 0.5 mM EDTA) (from The Cell Culture Company PAA); trypan blue dye (from Merck); and CELLTITER-GLO luminescent cell viability assay (from Promega); bovine serum albumin and arginine hydrochloride (from Sigma-Aldrich); sodium chloride (from Merck); Bradford reagent kit (from Amresco); carboplatin (cis-Diamine [1,1-cyclobutanedicarboxylato]platinum II) (from Calbiochem); Irinotecan hydrochloride (USP reference standard from Rockville, Md.).

Equipment:

a Jouan CR22 refrigerated centrifuge (Jouan, France); a Memmert incubator type BE-400 (Memmert, Germany); an inverted microscope (from Olympus model CK30); a TECAN microplate luminometer (TECAN, USA); an Infinite M200, NanoQuant TECAN multi detection microplate reader (from TECAN (USA)); and a Christ freeze-drier model Alpha 1-4LD (Germany).

Methods

A human small cell lung cancer (SW1271 cell line) was obtained from the American Type Cell Collection ATCC. According to ATCC standard protocols, the anchorage dependent cell line was cultivated at an initial inoculums cell concentration of 10⁴ cells/cm² in 15 ml complete growth media (CGM) which consists of Leibovitz's L-15 medium supplemented with 10% FBS (v/v), 0.3 g/L of L-Glu, and 1% (v/v) pen/strep in a CORNING 75 cm² canted neck cell culture flask. The cultivated cells were incubated at 37° C. in CO₂-free humidified atmosphere. The CGM was stored at +4° C. and warmed (37° C.) for 15 min in a water bath prior to usage (ATCC, 2007). Flasks containing the cultivated cells were checked at 24 h intervals for cell viability, adherence, morphology and confluence state using the inverted microscope. Cultures were examined for any macroscopic evidence of microbial contamination by the inverted microscope. Media was changed as needed when media color turns to yellow, as Leibovitz's L-15 medium contains red phenol which becomes yellow at low pH levels and bright red at pH 7.4 which is suitable for cell culture (ATCC, 2007).

When the monolayer of anchorage-dependent cell line SW1271 is near 90% confluent, they were subcultured according to protocols provided by the ATCC. After aspirating the CGM from the flasks, the adherent cells were dissociated from the cell culture flask walls by pipetting 3 ml ACCUTASE. After an incubation period of 15 minutes with ACCUTASE at 37° C., cells were examined under the inverted microscope to be sure that most (95%) cells were detached and dispersed into a single-cell suspension (ATCC, 2007).

Counting the viable cells was done using trypan blue dye exclusion which depends on counting the unstained cells that have not uptake the dye appearing rounded with halos following the below protocol (NSF, 2006):

-   -   1. Trypan blue solution was prepared in sterile BPS to a final         concentration of 0.4% (w/v).     -   2. Cell suspension was diluted by a sterile BPS to a total         volume of 4 ml so that cell do not overlay on each other making         counting difficult and inaccurate.     -   3. Both hemocytometer and coverslip, were cleaned, dried and         assembled.     -   4. Cell suspension and trypan blue was mixed thoroughly at a         ratio of 1:1 (creating a dilution factor of 2). Thence, 10 μl of         the mixture was pipetted into the counting chamber of the         hemocytometer. Touching the tips with the edge of the coverslip         is sufficient to fill the chamber because of the capillary         action.     -   5. Cell number in the square on each corner was counted and the         average was considered.     -   6. The total cell number was estimated using the following         equation:         Total cell number=average count per square×dilution         factor×10⁴×the total volume of the diluted cell suspension

Cell suspension was homogenized by gentle pipetting and then dispensed at a final density of 10⁴ cells/cm² into new cell culture flasks containing 15 ml of CGM. The flasks were regularly monitored to check for cell viability and microbial contamination (ATCC, 2007).

When cells reached roughly 90% confluence, they were harvested as described above using ACCUTASE as a dissociating agent. The ACCUTASE was removed by gentle centrifugation (10 min, at +4° C. and 125×g) with the refrigerated centrifuge, the supernatant was discarded, and cells were re-suspended in 4 ml of CGM. The cells were counted using the trypan blue dye exclusion, and 10⁴ cells were seeded into a CORNING COSTAR 96-well flat bottom cell culture microplate containing 200 μl of CGM using 8-channel EPPENDORF micropipettor. The microplates were incubated at 37° C. in a free-CO₂ humidified environment for 24 hours (ATCC, 2007).

After the 24-hour incubation, the medium was discarded and replaced by new 180 μl of CGM. A series of double dilutions of the concentrated lyophilized leech saliva extract (10×LSE) was prepared. The 10×LSE was filtered through 0.2 μm SARTORIUS sterile filter paper and 20 μl aliquots were added to the first three rows of the microplate with the higher concentration in the first row and so forth making the total volume 200 μl (180 μl of CGM+20 μl of 10×LSE). To the next three rows, 20 μl volumes of another double dilution series of a ten-time concentrated of the phagostimulatory solution were added. Another negative control plate was prepared containing untreated cells (10⁴ cells/well) cultivated in 200 μl of CGM.

Other plates were prepared following the same protocols by replacing 10×LSE by carboplatin and irinotecan as positive controls with a serial two-fold dilution of both starting from 100 μM in the first column. Two plates were prepared using 20 μl volumes of a double dilution series of mixtures consisting of:

-   -   1. 10 μl of 10×LSE mixed with 10 μl of 100 μM carboplatin.     -   2. 10 μl of 10×LSE mixed with 10 μl of 100 μM irinotecan.

All plates were incubated at 37° C. in free-CO₂ humidified atmosphere for 5 days. The antiproliferative or the cytotoxic effect of leech saliva extract was performed using a CELLTITER-GLO luminescent cell viability assay based on measuring the luminescence signal from the reaction between the ULTRA-GLO recombinant luciferase and the ATP molecules produced by the metabolically viable cells in the presence of Mg⁺² and molecular oxygen (from Promega, 2009). A CELLTITER-GLO assay was performed according to standard protocols:

-   -   1. CELLTITER-GLO reagent was prepared by mixing CELLTITER-GLO         buffer and the substrate which were previously equilibrated to         room temperature.     -   2. The 5-day incubated 96-well plates containing the         experimental cells were allowed to be equilibrated to room         temperature prior the assay. The medium was aspirated from all         wells and replaced by 100 μl of new CGM.     -   3. An equal volume of the prepared CELLTITER-GLO reagent 100 μl)         was pipetted into the well, and then mixed for 2 min using the         orbital plate shaker and let to stand at room temperature for 10         min to stabilize the luminescent signal.     -   4. The reaction medium (CGM+CELLTITER-GLO reagent) was         transferred into new white 96-well plate suitable for the         luminometer used.     -   5. Luminescence was recorded by the luminometer.     -   6. Cell inhibition was calculated from the equation (Xu, Guo,         Li, Wei, & Zhao, 2008):

${\%\mspace{14mu}{inhibition}} = {\frac{{{Control}{\mspace{11mu}\;}{signal}} - {{Sample}{\mspace{11mu}\;}{signal}}}{{Control}{\mspace{11mu}\;}{signal}} \times 100}$

-   -   7. The concentration of the test sample (LSE or the negative         control) which inhibits 50% of cell growth (IC₅₀) was averaged         from three replicates and estimated from plotting the percentage         of cell growth inhibition against test sample concentration.         (Hsu et al., 2011). Plots were carried out using a Four         Parametric Logistic Equation using Sigma Plot 11.0 software.

After an incubation period of 5 days at 37° C. in CO₂-free humidified environment, the cells reached almost 90% confluence. The cells were harvested by detaching them from the cell culture flask walls with ACCUTASE and centrifuged at 4° C. and 125×g for 10 minutes. Cell counting with a trypan blue method revealed that one flask contains approximately 5.550-5.740×10⁶ viable cells at near 90% confluence.

FIG. 20 shows that the LSE showed remarkable anti-proliferation activity against human small cell lung cancer (SW1271 cell line), according to some embodiments. The concentration of total LSE protein that inhibits growth of 50% of the cells after 5 days incubation (IC₅₀) was 119.844 μg/ml, estimated by plotting percent inhibition against total protein concentration. The phagostimulatory solution alone had no effect on cell proliferation.

FIGS. 21 and 22 show the cytotoxic effect of mixtures of LSE with irinotecan or carboplatin, according to some embodiments. The IC₅₀ of irinotecan and carboplatin were 5.813 μg/ml and 18.754 μg/ml, respectively. All measurements were repeated in triplicate, and the mean±the standard error of the mean SEM (n=3) were considered. Plots were generated using Four Parametric Logistic Equation with Sigma Plot 11.0 software.

A combination of LSE and irinotecan showed an IC_(50comb) of 51.463 μg/ml which is about 57.1% less than the IC₅₀ of LSE used alone. A combination of LSE and carboplatin show an IC_(50comb) of 114.261 μg/ml, a 4.6% reduction in IC₅₀. Carboplatin showed a dramatic decline in IC₅₀ value by 65%, such that IC_(50comb) of carboplatin and LSE was 6.449 μg/ml.

The results suggest that LSE, alone or in combination with other agents such as irinotecan or carboplatin could be useful in treating other forms of cancer, such as prostate, breast, and liquid cancers such as leukemias and lymphomas. Acute myeloid leukemia is of particular interest.

Example 5. A Method of Treating a Diabetes

This example shows the effectiveness of LSE in treating diabetes. The LSE isolation and total protein measurement was done according to the methods taught herein.

Materials and Methods:

Sodium chloride, arginine hydrochloride, absolute ethanol and formaldehyde 37% (from Merck); Bradford reagent kit (Amresco Inc.); Parafilm membrane (from American Can Company); anhydrous glucose (from Fisher Scientific); alloxan monohydrate used to induce diabetes (from Sigma Aldrich); bovine serum albumin (from Sigma Aldrich); insulin from bovine pancreas (≥27 units/mg)(from Sigma Aldrich); the method of preparing Alloxan solution in ice-cold normal saline immediately prior to injection (from Lenzen, 2008).

Centrifugation was done using Universal 32R centrifuge (from Hettich ZenTrifugen, Germany); microplate reader model INFINITE M200, NANOQUANT TECAN (from TECAN USA); lyophilization performed using a CHRIST freeze-drier model Alpha 1-4LD (Germany); a ONE TOUCH ULTRA glucometer and test strips used for the determination of blood glucose concentration (from LifeScan Inc., USA); and, a NIKON ECLIPSE 80i microscope.

Male rats of Sprague Dawley strain (SD) (from Mikro Makmur Enterprise, Kuantan, Pahang Darul Makmur, Malaysia) were grouped randomly and kept at an animal post-graduate laboratory in Kulliyyah of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), maintained with an air conditioning system and exhaust fans. The rats were under a 12 h/12 h dark and light cycle at room temperature (25° C.). They were acclimatized to these conditions for one week prior to the experiment and housed in polypropylene cages lined with pine wood husk changed every two days. The rats were given free access to tap water and a commercial dry pellet diet, Gold Coin. The experimental procedures were conducted according to Principles and Guide to Ethical Use of Laboratory Animals approved by Ministry of Health Malaysia (Sinniah & Hussein, 2000). The experimental protocols were approved by Ethics Committee Meeting (No. 1/2011 on 22 Apr. 2011) of Kulliyyah of Medicine, IIUM (Ref. No. IIUM/305/20/4/10).

The rats were fasted overnight and a type-1-like diabetes was induced by a single-dose intraperitoneal (i.p) administration of freshly prepared alloxan solution 160 mg/kg body weight (b.w.) (Rajakopal & Sasikala, 2008). In order to prevent fatal alloxan-induced hypoglycemia, the rats were administered a 20% glucose solution intraperitoneally followed by a 5% glucose solution orally for the next 12 hours (Lenzen, 2008). The rats were then fed a commercial pellet diet ad libitium and given free access to tap water. All experimental animals were injected three times with alloxan at 24 hours intervals.

After 24 hours of alloxanisation, the fasting blood glucose concentration (FBG) was measured every morning to check the diabetic state of the injected rats. All FBG values were taken from fresh capillary blood from a tail vein puncture, and measurements were taken using a ONE TOUCH ULTRA glucometer. After three days of alloxan injection, the rats showed FBG levels of more than 11.1 mmol/L, a level considered diabetic for the study (Abeeleh et al., 2009).

Forty male rats were divided randomly into eight groups, each comprising five rats as detailed below:

-   -   Group I: normal control rats, neither alloxan nor LSE was         injected into this group.     -   Group II: induced-diabetic control rats injected only with         alloxan solution i.p     -   Group III: induced-diabetic rats injected subcutaneously (s.c)         with LSE 500 μg/kg b.w which corresponds to the protein         amount/dose given by one leech.     -   Group IV: induced-diabetic rats injected s.c with LSE 1000 μg/kg         b.w which corresponds to the protein amount/dose given by two         leeches.     -   Group V: induced-diabetic rats injected s.c with the         phagostimulatory solution PhS1 (0.001M arginine in normal         saline) in a dose of 20 ml/kg b.w which contains the amount of         the arginine and sodium chloride that is supposed to accompany         the higher dose of LSE injected to the group IV.     -   Group VI: induced-diabetic rats injected s.c with 20 units/kg         b.w bovine pancreas insulin suspension in distilled water (Booth         & Brookover, 1968).     -   Group VII: induced-diabetic rats injected s.c with 10 units/kg         b.w bovine pancreas insulin suspension in distilled water (Booth         & Brookover, 1968).     -   Group VIII: induced-diabetic rats injected s.c with 250 μg/kg         b.w LSE+10 units/kg b.w bovine pancreas insulin.

The antihyperglycemic activity of LSE was assessed by the fall in FBG values within eight hours. Fasting blood glucose (FBG) at two-hour intervals was recorded during the experiment period for all the experimental animals. The percentage decrease in fasting blood glucose concentration was calculated from the following equation (Madubunyi, Onoja, & Asuzu, 2010):

${{Percentage}\mspace{14mu}{decrease}\mspace{14mu}{in}\mspace{14mu}{FBG}} = \left\lbrack {\frac{\begin{matrix} {{{FBG}\mspace{14mu}{before}{\mspace{11mu}\;}{treatment}\mspace{14mu}\left( {0\mspace{14mu}{hr}} \right)} -} \\ {{FBG}{\mspace{11mu}\;}{after}\mspace{14mu}{{treatment}{\mspace{11mu}\;}\left( {x\mspace{14mu}{hr}} \right)}} \end{matrix}}{{FBG}\mspace{14mu}{before}\mspace{14mu}{{treatment}{\mspace{11mu}\;}\left( {0\mspace{14mu}{hr}} \right)}} \times 100} \right\rbrack$

Thirty male rats were divided randomly into six groups, each comprising five rats as detailed below:

-   -   Group A-I: rats injected i.p with a single dose of alloxan (160         mg/kg b.w).     -   Group A-II: rats injected i.p with two doses of alloxan (160         mg/kg b.w) at 24-hour interval.     -   Group A-III: rats injected i.p with three doses of alloxan (160         mg/kg b.w) at 24-hour interval.     -   Group A-IV: rats injected s.c with a single dose of LSE (250         μg/kg b.w) followed after one hour by a single dose i.p of         alloxan (160 mg/kg b.w).     -   Group A-V: rats injected s.c with two doses of LSE (250 μg/kg         b.w) followed after one hour by two i.p doses of alloxan (160         mg/kg b.w) at 24-hour interval.     -   Group A-VI: rats injected s.c with three doses of LSE (250 μg/kg         b.w) followed after one hour by three i.p doses of alloxan (160         mg/kg b.w) at 24-hour interval.

The prophylactic activity of LSE was assessed by measuring FBG after 24 hours of each injection. Rats that exhibited FBG values between 8.3 and 13.9 mmol/L were considered as mild diabetic and those with FBG of more than 13.9 mmol/L were considered as severe diabetic (Gupta et al., 2009).

FIGS. 23 and 24 show the effect of different doses of LSE and insulin on fasting blood glucose (mmol/L) in normal and diabetic rats at various time intervals (h), according to some embodiments. After three days of intraperitoneal alloxan injection (160 mg/kg b.w), the FBG increased significantly (p<0.001) in the FBG in the diabetic control rats when compared with the normal control ones. The FBG levels were significantly reduced after injecting rats with LSE subcutaneously at both doses of 1000 and 500 μg/kg b.w. The LSE at a dose of 1000 μg/kg b.w resulted in a higher significant decline (p<0.001) in FBG than that of the dose 500 μg/kg (p<0.05). In addition, a significant reduction in FBG (p<0.05) occurred after two hours of injection with LSE, and a higher significant decline was noticed after four, six and eight hours (p<0.001).

All insulin-injected rats experienced a sharp significant decrease (p<0.001) in FBG after two hours of injection. Rats injected with the lower dose of insulin (10 units/kg b.w) returned to the diabetic state with rapid increasing FBG values after 8 hours of treatment. Rats that received insulin (10 units/kg) and LSE (250 μg/kg) exhibited a significant drop in FBG during the whole 8-hour study period. Diabetic rats injected with the phagostimulatory solution showed no significant reduction in FBG compared with the diabetic control group. No significant difference was seen between the normal rats and the diabetic rats treated with LSE or insulin at either dose.

Neither mortality nor a behavioural change was observed amongst the all saliva-injected animals until the end of the study. All these animals exhibited typical locomotion and physical activity, such as no signs of weakness or aggressiveness. No toxicity reaction were noticed for example no anorexia, ataxia, piloerection, loss of weight, diarrhoea, urination, breathing difficulty and noisy breathing. Simultaneous administration of LSE 250 μg/ml b.w) and insulin (10 units/kg b.w) induced hypoglycemia with no mortality. No signs of acute toxicity were observed in rats injected subcutaneously with LSE at both doses of 1000 and 500 μg/kg b.w, On the other hand, injection insulin at a dose of 20 units/kg b.w resulted in a hypoglycemic condition in all rats leading to the death of one rat. The other rats which stayed alive showed less physical activity especially during the first two hours of injection.

FIG. 25 shows that the LSE has a prophylactic effect on the onset of diabetes, according to some embodiments. For example, without use of LSE as a prophylactic, one dose of alloxan (160 mg/kg b.w) was not enough to induce diabetes in the rats, two doses made all rats mildly diabetic (10.1±2.0 mmol/L), and three doses induced severe diabetes (27.3±2.1 mmol/L). None of the rats injected with one dose of LSE (250 μg/kg b.w) before alloxanisation got diabetic at all. Two doses of LSE were able to prevent diabetic induction in all rats when injected one hour before the alloxan injection. Only rats which received three doses of alloxan after three doses of LSE became mild diabetic (11.5±0.6 mmol/L). The results are the mean of triplicates±the standard error of the mean SEM (n=5), analyzed using one-way ANOVA and Tukey's HSD post hoc test; p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. P<0.05 when compared with rats injected with two doses of alloxan and LSE. p<0.001 when compared with rats injected with three doses of alloxan and LSE.

Example 6. A Method of Treating a Viral Disease

This example will be used to show the effectiveness of LSE at treating a viral disease. The LSE isolation and total protein measurement will be done according to the methods taught herein.

A tissue culture generally a chicken embryo 3-6 days old will be infected in side the embryo membrane by a dose of live viruses (hepatitis C, HIV, Dengue, West Nile, and Influenza H1N1, H5N1) if necessary a multiple infections will be used until the infection takes place.

After a period of incubation, embryo growth and changes in their tissues will be monitored according to established procedures. This infected tissue culture will serve as a control. Three other cultured tissues will be prepared by the same method. In the first one, four doses of LSE (100/250/500/1000 ug/b.w) will be injected before the viral infection. In the second tissue culture, four doses of LSE (100/250500/1000 ug/b.w) will be injected at 1, 2, 3. 4 hours after the viral infection. In third a tissue, four doses of inactivated LSE (100/250/500/1000 ug/b.w), will be injected after and before infection. The aim in the third experiment is to analyze any change in signal pathways and comparison with the active LSE will be made in order to have an indication of the mechanism of action. The three cultured tissues: treated after and before and with inactivated LSE will be monitored and compared to the control tissue.

The effect LSE on viral infection will be then deduced according to established procedures and will be compared to the conventional drugs like interferon.

Example 7. A Method of Treating a Parasitic Disease

This example will be used to show the effectiveness of LSE at treating a parasitic disease. The LSE isolation and total protein measurement will be done according to the methods taught herein.

In the case of malaria, an animal model, generally a mouse model will be injected by a dose of a malaria parasite (the dose will be determined according to the virulence of the parasite Spp) until the animals develop the desired symptoms of malaria. The sick animals will be injected (SC or IV mode) by two doses (500/1000 ug/K b.w LSE). After treatment, blood drops will be taken from the mice tail on glass slides for examination under the microscope. or for ELIZA testing.

We will use eight groups of ten mice each as follows:

-   -   1. Group A—control infective positive     -   2. Group B—Infected & treated with LSE (500 ug/K bw) after 1, 2,         3, 4. hours     -   3. Group C—Infected & treated with LSE (1000 ug/K bw) after 1,         2, 3, 4. hours     -   4. Group D—½ hour before the infection with the parasite we         inject it with LSE (500 ug/K bw) as prophylactic measures.     -   5. Group E—½ hour before the infection with the parasite we         inject it with LSE (1000 ug/K bw) as prophylactic measures.     -   6. Group F & G—Infected mice injected with 500 & 1000 ug/K bw of         phagostimulatory solution.

Blood smears will be taken from the tail of the mice daily and examined under a light microscope for seven days to monitor the activity of the LSE. The last (H) infected group will be treated with a standard antimalaria drug to monitor the relative activity and potency of LSE on the parasite.

Example 8. A Method of Administering an Antioxidant Therapy

This example shows the antioxidant activity of LSE. The LSE isolation and total protein measurement was done according to the methods taught herein.

Materials and Methods

Methanol (MeOH) (from Fischer Scientific); L-Ascorbic acid (from Calbiochem); arginine hydrochloride, bovine serum albumin (BSA), and DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) (from Sigma Aldrich); sodium chloride (NaCl) (from Merck).

An Infinite M200, NanoQuant TECAN multi detection microplate reader (from TECAN (USA)); a Hettich ZenTrifugen Universal 32R centrifuge (Germany); a CHRIST freeze-drier model Alpha 1-4LD (Germany).

Antioxidant activity was determined using known methods (Blois, 1958) of measuring radical scavenging ability using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) (Althunibat et al., 2009; Blois, 1958; Sanja, Sheth, Patel, Patel, & Patel, 2009):

-   -   1. Preparation of DPPH solution: a DPPH solution (0.002M) was         prepared by dissolving 4.3 mg DPPH in 3.3 ml MeOH. The resultant         solution was protected from light by covering the container with         an aluminum foil.     -   2. Preparation of test sample: The lyophilized LSE was dissolved         in the minimum amount of distilled water (2 ml). The volume was         brought to a final volume of 6.6 ml by MeOH yielding a 3-time         concentrated LSE, and the resultant methanol solution was termed         as 3×mLSE. Volumes of 100 μl of serial double-fold dilutions of         the 3×mLSE were pipetted into a 96-well plate. All volumes were         brought to a final volume of 300 μl by MeOH.     -   3. Preparation of standard solution: A stock solution of         ascorbic acid (50 μg/ml) was prepared by dissolving 500 μg of         ascorbic acid in 10 ml MeOH with vigorous shaking. Serial         step-wise dilutions were prepared in the 96-well plate by taking         different volumes of the stock solution and diluting them with         MeOH up to 300 μl, corresponding to final concentrations of 50,         40, 30, 20, 10, 5 and 2.5 μg/ml.     -   4. Experimental protocols: A volume of 15 μl of DPPH solution         (0.002M) was added to 300 μl of MeOH. Immediately, the         absorbance at 516 nm (A₅₁₆) was measured as a control reading.         15 μl of DPPH solution was added to the test samples and         standard solutions. The A₅₁₆ of the test samples were taken         after 15 min, and the same procedures were used with PhS1 as a         negative control.     -   5. Calculations: The free radical scavenging activity (%         antiradical activity) was estimated from the equation:

${\%\mspace{14mu}{antiradical}{\mspace{11mu}\;}{activity}} = {\frac{{{Control}{\mspace{11mu}\;}{absorbance}} - {{Sample}\mspace{14mu}{absorbance}}}{{Contol}\mspace{14mu}{absorbance}} \times 100}$

FIGS. 26 and 27 compares the free radical scavenging activity of LSE to L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C), according to some embodiments. All measurements were repeated in triplicate, and the mean±SEM was considered. The concentration of ascorbic acid and the LSE proteins (μg/ml) required for scavenging 50% of DPPH (IC₅₀) was estimated from the curve resulted from plotting % antiradical activity against concentrations (μg/ml). Plots were carried out using Four Parametric Logistic Equation using Sigma Plot 11.0 software.

A dose-dependent free radical scavenging activity was shown by the LSE having an IC₅₀ of 7.282 μg/ml. Similarly, L-ascorbic acid was found to be a free radical scavenger with IC₅₀ of 5.803 μg/ml.

Example 10. A Method of Administering an Antibacterial Therapy

This example shows the effectiveness of LSE as an antibacterial.

Methods and Materials

Mueller-Hinton agar (MHA) and Mueller-Hinton broth (MHB) (from Oxoid Ltd.); potato dextrose agar (PDA) and potato dextrose broth (PDB) (from Liofilchem); antimicrobial susceptibility test discs containing 5 μg/disc ciprofloxacin and 100 units/disc nystatin (from Oxoid Ltd); bovine serum albumin and arginine hydrochloride (from Sigma-Aldrich); sodium chloride (NaCl) (from Merck); Bradford reagent kit (from Amresco).

a Laminar Flow Hood Jouan (Jouan SA, France); an incubator Memmert/INB 400 and water bath Memmert/WNB 22 (from Memmert GmbH, Germany); a HIRAYAMA/HV-85 Autoclave (HIRAYAMA Corporation, Japan); a HITACHI U-1900 Spectrophotometer (from HITACHI High-Tech (Japan)); sterile 96-well plates (from Greiner Bio-One Corporation): a centrifuge Hettich ZenTrifugen Universal 32R (Germany).

Reference strains of human pathogens were used including Gram-positive bacterial spp. (Bacillus cereus ATCC25923 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC25923), Gram-negative bacterial strains (Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC27853, Escherichia coli ATCC35218 and Salmonella typhi from Institute of Medical Research Health Ministry IMR) and two fungal strains (Candida albicans ATCC10231 and Cryptococcus neoformans ATCC90112).

All media used during the experimental procedures were prepared according to the manufacturer instructions, as the following:

-   -   1. Muller-Hinton agar (MHA): was prepared by suspending 38 g of         MHA in 1 L distilled water with boiling and frequent vigorous         agitation until completely dissolved. Then, it was sterilized by         autoclaving at 121° C. for 15 minutes.     -   2. Muller-Hinton broth (MHB): was prepared by suspending 21 g of         MHB in 1 L distilled water with boiling and frequent vigorous         agitation until completely dissolved. Then, it was sterilized by         autoclaving at 121° C. for 15 minutes. The resultant stock         sterile broth was kept in a well closed 1000-ml screw-cap         bottle, wrapped with parafilm membrane at the cap and stored at         +4° C. for further usage. Before usage, MHB was warmed (37° C.)         in the incubator for 15 minutes.     -   3. Potato dextrose agar (PDA): was prepared by suspending 39 g         of PDA in 1 L distilled water with boiling and frequent vigorous         agitation until completely dissolved. Then, it was sterilized by         autoclaving at 121° C. for 15 minutes.     -   4. Potato dextrose broth (PDB): was prepared by suspending 26.5         g in PDB 1 L distilled water with boiling and frequent vigorous         agitation until completely dissolved. Then, it was sterilized by         autoclaving at 121° C. for 15 min. The resultant stock sterile         broth was kept in a well closed 1000-ml screw-cap bottle,         wrapped with parafilm membrane at the cap and stored at +4° C.         for further usage. Before usage, PDB was warmed (37° C.) in the         incubator for 15 minutes.

Before pouring of agar, the freshly prepared sterilized agar medium MHA/PDA for bacterial/fungal strains, was allowed to cool in water bath adjusted at 50° C. for 15-30 minutes in order to prevent the formation of moisture droplets by condensation phenomenon. Thereafter, a volume of about 20-25 ml was poured into disposable flat-bottom sterile (gamma-irradiated) Petri dishes to a height of 4 mm avoiding trapping any air bubbles. The plates with lids ajar were left to equilibrate at room temperature for about 15 minutes under the laminar flow to get rid of excess surface moisture and temperature. Finally, the plates were covered, inverted downside upwards and stored in the refrigerator (+4° C.) to be used within a maximum period of one week. Before inoculation of the agar-containing plates, they were equilibrated to room temperature for about one hour in order to minimize condensation (Coyle, 2005; Goldman & Green, 2009; Lalitha, 2004).

A turbid-metric assay was carried out to standardize the microorganism number used for inoculation. The Direct Colony Suspension method was used to prepare inoculation suspension (Coyle, 2005; Goldman & Green, 2009; Lalitha, 2004; Rex, Pfaller, Rinaldi, Polak, & Galgiani, 1993). Experimental procedures include the following steps:

-   1. Preparation of Barium Sulfate (0.5 McFarland) standard     suspension: It was prepared by adding 0.5 part of 0.048M BaCl₂ to     99.5 parts of 0.18M H₂SO₄ and agitated vigorously until a homogenous     suspension was obtained. The turbidity of the suspension was     verified by measuring the optical density at 625 nm (OD₆₂₅) by the     spectrophotometer. Proper dilutions were done to get an absorbance     value of 0.008-0.10 which corresponds to 0.5 McFarland standards.     The prepared standard suspension was aliquoted into small screw-caps     glass bottles, stored at room temperature and protected from light.     Before utilization, the bottles were stirred well by vortex to     maintain a uniform suspension. -   2. Direct Colony Suspension method:     -   a) Under aseptic condition, five colonies isolated by         ignition-sterilized inoculation loop from 18-24-hour cultivated         agar plates of each microbe were suspended separately in 20 mL         pre-warmed (37° C.) broth medium (MHB for bacterial strains or         PDB for fungi stains) kept in screw-cap bottles and incubated at         37° C.     -   b) During the incubation period, aliquots of 1 mL were taken         from the culture at hourly intervals and the optical density         (OD₆₂₅ for bacterial suspension and OD₅₃₀ for fugal suspension)         were measured using the spectrophotometer.     -   c) Proper dilutions by MHB/PDB were done in order to adjust the         microorganism suspension to match the 0.5 McFarland turbidity         standards. Broth suspension and the Barium Sulfate 0.5 McFarland         standard were compared by the naked eye against a card with a         white background and black lines. Finally, the resultant broth         suspensions contained 10⁷ CFU/ml for bacterial spp. and 10⁴         CFU/ml for fungal spp. which were used for all experiments         performed.     -   d) Suspensions were always agitated thoroughly before OD         measurement and inoculation.

The Kirby-Bauer Disc Diffusion method was used for determining antimicrobial activity of LSE:

-   1. Inoculation of test plates: a sterile cotton swab was immersed     and rotated many times in the adjusted microorganism suspension. The     immersed swab was pressed strongly till all excess fluids were     removed. The swab was passed over the dried sterile agar surface of     MHA-containing plates for bacterial strains or PDA-containing plates     for fungal strains. These steps were repeated three times by     spreading the broth suspension using glass rod in order to get     evenly inoculated plates. The plates were left open under the     laminar flow hood for 5 minutes to allow the surface to absorb the     extra moisture. -   2. Preparation of dried filter paper discs: WHATMAN filter paper No.     1 was used to prepare discs approximately 6 mm in diameter. These     discs were dipped in test solution (LSE or PhS1, steriled by     filtration through 0.2 μm sterile SARTORIUS filter paper).     Thereafter, they were allowed to dry for 5 minutes in the incubator     (37° C.) before application onto the Petri dishes. The discs were     left at room temperature for about 15 minutes before placement to     the inoculated agar Petri dishes. -   3. Discs placement to the inoculated agar Petri dishes: The filter     discs loaded with test solution (LSE/PhS1) and reference     antibiotic-containing discs (5 μg/disc ciprofloxacin or 100     units/disc nystatin) were laid down on the inoculated agar plates     using sterile forceps with gentle pressing to ensure a good     adherence to the agar surface. The discs were distributed to be at     least 15 mm from the edge of the plate and no closer than 24 mm from     center to center. Lastly, the plates were inverted upside downward     and incubated at 37° C. for 24 h and 48 h for bacterial and fungal     spp., respectively.

After the incubation period, the zone of inhibition (mm) around each disc was measured using a ruler and compared with the reference antibiotics used.

Microdilution was used to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC), which is the minimal concentration of LSE protein content that can inhibit the growth of the test organism. Serial double-fold dilutions of LSE were carried out in a sterile 96-well plate. 100 μl of sterile Mueller-Hinton broth was pipetted into the first five columns wells of the plate. 100 μl of LSE was mixed with the broth in the first three wells of the first row of the plate. Dilutions were made by transferring 100-μl aliquots of the mixture from the first three wells into the next ones vertically, and so forth. 10 μl of the test organism suspension broth containing (10⁷ CFU/ml) was pipetted into each well of the first four columns, but no inoculum was added to the fifth column. The fourth and the fifth columns were considered as positive (broth with inoculum) and negative control (broth only), respectively. The plate was covered, wrapped with parafilm sheets around the edges to avoid dehydrating, and incubated for 24 hours at 37° C. After the incubation period, the MIC endpoint was determined by a lack of turbidity in the well.

The antibacterial and antifungal activities of the fresh LSE and the lyophilized samples are shown in Table 3 with ciproflaxin and nystatin, where the LSE is shown to have desired activity.

TABLE 3 Bacterial spp. Starvation Sal. Fungal spp. period S. aureus P. auroginosa typhi E. coli B. cereus C. albicans C. neoformance Sample (weeks) Zone of inhibition (mm) Fresh 16 — 0 22  25  0 — — LSE 22 0 0 0 0 0 — — 26 0 0 0 0 0 — — Lyoph.  22^(a) 11  0 10  0 0 0 0 LSE  26^(b) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Arginine + — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 NaCl^(c) Cipro — 24  24  35  26  28  — — (5 μg)^(d) Nystatin — — — — — — 10  9 (100unit)^(e) ^(a)five folds concentrated, ^(b)ten folds concentrated, ^(c)the phagostimulatory solution as negative control, ^(d,e)reference antibiotics, 0: no inhibition, —: not determined

Example 11. A Method to Test, Solid and Liquid Tumor Cell Types

This example discusses an in vitro assessment of the activity of LSE as applied to cancer and non-cancer cell lines.

In order to test the LSE for it's anticancer efficacy, it can be applied to additional cell lines that include, for example, MCF-7 (breast), PC-3 (prostate), K562 (leukemia), MeWo (skin melanoma), Mia PaCa-2 (pancreatic carcinoma), A549 (lung cancer), U87MG (brain tumor, glioblastoma), MCF10A (normal epithelial cells), HT-29 (colon carcinoma), CaCo-2 (normal intestinal epithelial cells), HEP 3B (human hepatoma liver cancer), ES-2 (ovarian carcinoma), HBEpC (normal human epithelial cells), CCRF-CEM (leukemia), HL-60(TB) (leukemia), MOLT-4 (leukemia), RPMI-8226 (leukemia), SR (leukemia), EKVX (non-small cell lung), HOP-62 (non-small cell lung), HOP-92 (non-small cell lung). NCI-H226 (non-small cell lung), NCI-H23 (non-small cell lung), NCI-H322M (non-small cell lung), NCI-H460 (non-small cell lung), NCI-H522 (non-small cell lung), COLO 205 (colon), HCC-2998 (colon), HCT-116 (colon), HCT-15 (colon), KM12 (colon), SW-620 (colon), SF-268 (CNS), SF-295 (CNS), SF-539 (CNS), SNB-19 (CNS), SNB-75 (CNS), U251 (CNS), LOX IMVI (melanoma), MALME-3M (melanoma), M14 (melanoma), SK-MEL-2 (melanoma), SK-MEL-28 (melanoma), SK-MEL-5 (melanoma), UACC-257 (melanoma), UACC-62 (melanoma), IGR-OVI (ovarian), OVCAR-3 (ovarian), OVCAR-4 (ovarian), OVCAR-5 (ovarian), OVCAR-8 (ovarian), SK-OV-3 (ovarian), 786-0 (renal), A498 (renal), ACHN (renal), CAKI-1 (renal), RXF-393 (renal), SN12C (renal), TK-10 (renal), UO-31 (renal), DU-145 (prostate), NCI/ADR-RES (breast), MDA-MB-231/ATCC (breast), HS 578T (breast), MDA-MB-435 (breast), MDA-MB-468 (breast), BT-549 (breast), T-47D (breast), Saos-2 (bone cancer).

Materials and Methods

a 96 well flat bottom plate; MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) (Sigma catalogue #M2128); reagent reservoirs; a multi-channel pipette; a multichannel repeater pipette; a set of single pipettors, 10 μL, 200 μL, 1000 μL; and various pipette tips.

Growth media, reagents and serum including Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Media (DMEM), high glucose; RPMI-1640 media; Iscove's; Hank's Buffered Salt Solution; L-glutamine; Fetal Bovine Serum; and Trypsin/EDTA.

To perform the MTT cytotoxicity assay, produce a stock solution of 5 mg MTT/ml PBS (phosphate buffered saline); use a sterile filter with 0.22 μM syringe filter; and store at 4° C. in the dark. Produce a working solution of 1 mg/ml dilute MTT stock solution with 1:4 (v/v) in pre-warmed culture medium.

Day 1, plate cells; Day 2, add drugs; Days 3-5, Read plates.

An example of a plate array design is as follows:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 A X X X X X X X X X X X X B X media control 1433 717 358 179 90 45 22 11 X C X media control 1433 717 358 179 90 45 22 11 X D X media control 1433 717 358 179 90 45 22 11 X E X media control 1433 717 358 179 90 45 22 11 X F X media control 1433 717 358 179 90 45 22 11 X G X media control 1433 717 358 179 90 45 22 11 X H X X X X X X X X X X X X X: H₂O; final volume all wells: 200 μL

Day 1: Plating Cells

Two cell lines can be plated on one 96-well plate such that tests are completed in triplicate for each (K562 is non-adherent, for example, and so should be on separate plate). Adherent cell lines must be plated one day prior to adding drugs to allow the cells to adhere to the plate, whereas non-adherent cells (suspension cells) can be plated on the same day (Day 2) prior to adding drugs.

Cells are first counted on the hemocytometer to observe the viability of the cells which should be greater than or equal to 90%. If this is not the case, the live cells should be separated from the dead cells using Ficoll-Paque (3 mL per 4 mL of cells, centrifuge for 25 min at 1500 rpm, wash cells once with culture medium 5 min at 1500 rpm). The number of cells to be plated per well varies with the growth rate of the cell line. The ideal optical density (O.D.) of the control cells should be between 1.00 and 2.00 by the end of the incubation time. Due to increased rate of evaporation along the border of the wells of the plate, it is not used for the assay, but is filled with 200 μl of sterile water.

Column B2-G2 is used as the blank and is filled with 200 μl of medium. Column B3-G3 is the control column with 100 μl of cells only. Drug is added to the cells in triplicate, therefore columns B4-D4, B5-D5, B6-D6 etc. to B11-D11 allows for 8 different concentrations of drug to be tested. This applied to the bottom half of the plate as well.

When adding cells to the plate to make sure that the cells are well suspended so that the same number of cells will be added to each well. Leave the plate in an incubator overnight for adherent cell lines to settle on the plate.

Day 2: Adding Drugs

If there are adherent cells, aspirate the used medium and add 100 μl of fresh medium. Add 100 μl of drug of desired concentration in each well. Since the total volume of the medium per well is 200 μl, dilute the drug accordingly. If you want the final concentration of drug to be 10 μM in the well, for example, you will have to make a 20 μM solution (100 μl of this plus 100 μl of your medium will give you a 10 μmol solution in a total of 200 μl). Add 100 μl of medium to wells in the control column (B3-G3). Return plate to incubator 72 hours.

Reading the Plate

At the end of the incubation period, add 50 μl per well of MTT working solution to all of the wells. Return plate to incubator for 3-4 hours and keep incubation times constant for repeat experiments. Set up your assay template on the plate reader. After 3-4 hours, remove plates from incubator. If the cells are non-adherent, they must be spun down for 10 minutes at 1800 rpm. Tip the 96 well plate on a 45° angle towards yourself. Using a 10-100 μl pipet tip attached to the vacuum, aspirate supernatant from each well. Add 150 μl DMSO per well.

Resuspend cells by placing plate on the plate shaker (5-10 min should be long enough). If needed, resuspend tough cells by hand using the multichannel pipette, being careful not to create bubbles. The best way to get rid of any bubbles in a 96 well plate is to direct a gentle stream of air onto the plate. Place plate into spectrophotometer and read at 570 nm.

Data Collection

The following records will be collected: growth cell optimization for each cell line; cytotoxicity of LSE; and cell viability graphs. 

We claim:
 1. A method of creating a dosage form of a lyophilized, whole saliva extract of a leech for topical administration to a subject, the method comprising: feeding a phagostimulatory agent to a leech; inducing regurgitation in the leech, the inducing including placing the leech in an environment having a temperature ranging from about −5° C. to about 15° C., collecting an unrefined, whole saliva in the regurgitation of the cooled leech; removing solid components from the unrefined, whole saliva to create a refined, whole saliva; lyophilizing separate volumes of the refined, whole saliva extract, the volumes not exceeding about 2 ml each; and, formulating the lyophilized volumes into a dosage form for topical administration, the formulating including selecting a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for the topical administration of the lyophilized volumes to the subject.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the formulating includes creating a lotion, a cream, an ointment, a spray, or an emulsion. 